Cracking failure of a curved laminated lumber might occur due to transverse stress under a curvature-decreasing bending moment. From both safety and cost perspectives, it is essential to understanding the failure moments and failure modes of curved laminated lumber. While the existing equation to calculate the transverse stress of a curved laminated lumber under a bending moment applied in most literatures is approximate and may cause considerable errors when the initial curvature of beam is small. This is detrimental to the design of curved laminated timber. To solve this problem, we proposed a new equation of bending moment Mc at which the cracking failure is initiated. Mc calculated from this new equation is accurate and larger than Mc-approx calculated from the existing approximate equation. We also derived a novel equation to calculate the minimum ch (cminh) below which cracking failure will not occur. Besides, a novel equation to calculate the critical ch (ccrih) which represents equal opportunities for cracking and bending failure of the beam to occur was further derived. The model proposed in this article are valuable and practical in the design of curved laminated lumber.
To exert our model to practice, the equations derived in this paper are applied to literature data (Wood handbook, 1999) and the results showed that hardwoods have statistically significantly larger average values of three parameters, Mc, cminh and ccrih, than softwoods which means hardwoods are more resistant to cracking failure than softwoods. This information is quite useful since lots of laminated lumber for building or furniture are made of hardwoods in Asia.
The lateral resistance of dowel-type connections with CLT is related to its lay-up, species of the laminations and even the manufacture method. Treating the CLT as homogeneous material, current methods develop new equations through test results or make use of the existing equations for the embedment strength already used in design codes; thus, the lateral resistance of dowel-type connections of CLT can be calculated. This kind of approach does not take the embedment stress distribution into account, which may lead to inaccuracy in predicting the lateral resistance and yield mode of the dowel-type connections in CLT. In this study, tests of the bolted connections and the screwed connections of CLT were conducted by considering the effects of the orientation of the laminations, the thickness of the connected members, the fastener diameter and strength of the materials. The material properties including yield strength of the fasteners and embedment strength of the CLT laminations were also tested. Using analysis of the dowel-type connections of CLT by introducing the equivalent embedment stress distribution, equations for the lateral resistance of the connections based on the European Yield Model were developed. The predicted lateral resistance and yield modes were in good agreement with the test results; the correctness and the feasibility of the equations were thus validated.
In timber–concrete composite members with notched connections, the notches act as the shear connections between the timber and the concrete part, and have to carry the shear flow necessary for composite action. The shear transfer through the notches generates shear and tensile stresses in both parts of the composite member, which may lead to brittle failure and to an abrupt collapse of the structure. Although simplified design formulas already exist, some structural aspects are still not clear, and a reliable design model is missing. This paper summarizes current design approaches and presents analytical models to understand the shear-carrying mechanism, to estimate the shear stresses acting in the timber and concrete, and to predict failure. The analysis concentrates on three problems: the shearing-off failure of the timber close to the notch, the shear failure of the concrete, and the influence of the shear flow on the gap opening between the timber and concrete. Parts of the model calculations could be compared to experimental observations. The conclusions of this paper contribute to improving current design approaches.
In platform-type multi-story cross-laminated timber (CLT) buildings, gravity loads from upper floors, and vertical reaction forces from horizontal actions, like wind loads, cause substantial compressive forces in the CLT-floor elements. The combination of these high forces with a comparable low compression stiffness and strength perpendicular to the grain of timber, makes the compression perpendicular to the grain (CPG) verification of CLT an important design criterion. In this experimental study, CPG of CLT was investigated by means of typical wall-to-floor connections in CLT platform-type structures. CLT-wall elements were used for load application to transmit forces through the CLT-floor element by CPG. Compared to load application by steel elements, as it commonly is done in experiments, lower stiffness but similar strength were found for CLT walls. The study of different connection types showed the highest stiffness and strength for connections assembled with screws, followed by pure wood-to-wood contact, while connections with acoustic layers between the floor and wall elements showed the lowest stiffness and strength. In addition, these connections were tested for center and edge load position on the CLT-floor element. The strength for center and edge position compared to full surface loaded specimens increased linearly with the activated material volume, as determined by earlier proposed stress dispersion models. The stress dispersion effect was visualized by surface strain measurements using digital image correlation technique. Also, the stiffness increased with the activated material volume. Stress dispersion in the CLT-floor allowed to explain the increase in stiffness and strength with decreasing CLT-wall thickness. Strength values at different strain levels, and stiffness and strength increase factors suitable for the engineering design of CLT structures are provided.
Innovative mass timber panels, known as composite laminated panels (CLP), have been developed using lumber and laminated strand lumber (LSL) laminates. In this study, strain distributions of various 5-layer CLP and cross-laminated timber (CLT) were investigated by experimental and two modelling methods. Seven (7) different panel types were tested in third-point bending and short-span shear tests. During the tests, the digital imaging correlation (DIC) technique was used to measure the normal and shear strain in areas of interest. Evaluated component properties were used to determine strain distributions based on the shear analogy method and finite element (FE) modelling. The calculated theoretical strain distributions were compared with the DIC test results to evaluate the validity of strain distributions predicted by the analytical model (shear analogy) and numerical model (FE analysis). In addition, the influence of the test setup on the shear strain distribution was investigated. Results showed that the DIC strain distributions agreed well with the ones calculated by the shear analogy method and FE analysis. Both theoretical methods agree well with the test results in terms of strain distribution shape and magnitude. While the shear analogy method shows limitations when it comes to local strain close to the supports or gaps, the FE analysis reflects these strain shifts well. The findings support that the shear analogy is generally applicable for the stress and strain determination of CLP and CLT for structural design, while an FE analysis can be beneficial when it comes to the evaluation of localized stresses and strains. Due to the influence of compression at a support, the shear strain distribution near the support location is not symmetric. This is confirmed by the FE method.
International Conference on Innovative Materials, Structures and Technologies
Research Status
Complete
Notes
September 30-October 2 2015, Riga, Latvia
Summary
Cross laminated timber (CLT) is one of the structural building systems based on the lamination of multiple layers, where each layer is oriented perpendicularly to each other. Recent requirements are placed to develop an alternative process based on the mechanical lamination of the layers, which is of particular interest to our research group at the University Centre for Energy Efficient Buildings. The goal is to develop and verify the behaviour of mechanically laminated CLT wall panels exposed to shear stresses in the plane. The shear resistance of mechanically jointed CLT is ensured by connecting the layers by screws. The paper deals with the experimental analysis focused on the determination of the torsional stiffness and the slip modulus of crossing areas for different numbers of orthogonally connected layers. The results of the experiments were compared with the current analytical model.
To evaluate the bond behavior between glulam and GFRP rods, applied according to the nearsurface mounted strengthening technique, an experimental program composed of beam and direct pullout tests was carried. In this experimental program three main variables were analyzed: the GFRP type, the GFRP location into the groove, and the bond length. From the monitoring system it was registered the loaded and free end slips, and the pullout force. Based on these experimental results, and applying an analytical-numerical strategy, the local bond stress-slip relationship was calculated. In this work the tests are described, the obtained results are presented and discussed, and the applicability of the inverse analysis to obtain the local bond law is demonstrated.
With the aim of evaluating the bond behaviour between glulam and carbon fibre reinforced polymer laminates strips, an experimental program using pull-out tests was carried, when the near-surface strengthening technique is applied. Two main variables were studied: the bond length and the type of pull-out test configuration. The instrumentation included the loaded and free-end slips, as well as the pullout force. Based on the obtained experimental results, and applying an analytical-numerical strategy, the local bond stress-slip relationship was determined. In this work the tests are described, the obtained results are presented and analysed, and the applicability of an inverse analysis to obtain the local bond law is demonstrated.
For a cross-laminated timber (CLT) manufactured using Sugi, a digging test was performed by changing the number of layers, the laminar configuration, the direction of the outer layer laminar with respect to the direction of the pressure plate, and the arrangement of the test piece with respect to the load direction, and each combination was performed. In addition to clarifying the sunk strength performance of CLT, a method for easily evaluating the sunk strength performance was examined. As a result of the sinking test, it was found that the parameters that determine the sinking strength performance are the direction of the outer layer laminar and the arrangement of the test piece, and the number of layers and the laminar configuration do not contribute much to the sinking strength performance. When the proportional limit stress of CLT was estimated using the proportional limit stress of each laminar, the estimated value and the measured value were in relatively good agreement.
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