Solid-sawn lumber (Douglas-fir, southern pine, Spruce– Pine–Fir, and yellow-poplar), laminated veneer lumber (Douglas-fir, southern pine, and yellow-poplar), and laminated strand lumber (aspen and yellow-poplar) were heated continuously at 82°C (180°F) and 80% relative humidity (RH) for periods of up to 24 months. The lumber was then reconditioned to room temperature at 20% RH and tested in edgewise bending. Little reduction occurred in modulus of elasticity (MOE) of solid-sawn lumber, but MOE of composite lumber products was somewhat reduced. Modulus of rupture (MOR) of solid-sawn lumber was reduced by up to 50% after 24 months exposure. Reductions in MOR of up to 61% were found for laminated veneer lumber and laminated strand lumber after 12 months exposure. A limited scope study indicated that the results for laminated veneer lumber in edgewise bending are also applicable to flatwise bending. Comparison with previous results at 82°C (180°F)/25% RH and at 66°C (150°F)/20% RH indicate that differences in the permanent effect of temperature on MOR between species of solid-sawn lumber and between solid-sawn lumber and composite lumber products are greater at high humidity levels than at low humidity levels. This report also describes the experimental design of a program to evaluate the permanent effect of temperature on flexural properties of structural lumber, with reference to previous publications on the immediate effect of temperature and the effect of moisture content on lumber properties.
Wood is a highly versatile renewable material (with carbon sequestering properties), that is light in weight, has good strength properties in both tension and compression while providing good rigidity and toughness, and good insulating properties (relative to typical structural materials). Engineered wood products combine the benefits of wood with engineering knowledge to create optimized structural elements. Cross-laminated timber (CLT), as one such engineered wood product, is an emerging engineering material which provides great opportunities for the building industry. While building with wood has many benefits, there are also some concerns, particularly decay. Should wood be exposed to elevated amounts of moisture, rots and moulds may damage the product or even risk the health of the occupants. As CLT panels are a relatively new engineered wood product, the moisture characteristics have yet to be properly assessed.
This project was conducted to quantify the performance of adhesives bond lines under shear load subject to elevated temperature. The results add to the understanding of the performance of polyurethane adhesive bond lines under elevated temperatures to address areas of fire safety concern under the current building codes. The project focused on studying the shear bond capacity of three wood species by using 3 types of adhesives with/without nanoclay treatment at 4 temperature levels. The three wood species are Douglas-Fir, Hemlock and SPF. The adhesives are polyurethane (PU), Phenol-Resorcinol-Formaldehyde (PRF) and Epoxy. PU and PRF specimens were also tested with nanoclay treatment and without nanoclay treatment. Epoxy specimens were tested without nanoclay treatment only. The temperature levels considered were room temperature (about 20 °C), 60°C, 80°C and 100°C. The results indicate that the influence of elevated temperature on the shear bond strength of PU and PRF adhesive was in the range of 20 to 30% regardless of nanoclay treatment. Regardless of species, PU or PRF, with or without nanoclay, the average shear strength for 100°C oven temperature treatment ranged from 6.0 to 7.5 MPa. In the case of SPF PU specimens treatment with nanoclay reduced the variability of shear strength significantly from 12% at room temperature to 5% after 100°C oven treatment. This is an important aspect that needs further verification for enhancement of performance. Finally the data in this study can be used to support modeling of timber component subjected to elevated temperature.
This paper presents a study on evaluating rolling shear (RS) strength properties of cross laminated timber (CLT) using torsional shear tests and bending tests. The CLT plates were manufactured with Spruce-Pine-Fir boards and glued with polyurethane adhesive. Two types of layups (3-layer and 5-layer) and two clamping pressures (0.1 MPa and 0.4 MPa) were studied. For the torsional shear tests, small shear block specimens were sampled from the CLT plates and the cross layers were processed to have an annular cross section. Strip specimens were simply sampled from the CLT plates for the bending tests. Based on the failure loads, RS strength properties were evaluated by torsional shear formula, composite beam formulae as well as detailed finite element models, respectively. It was found that the two different test methods yielded different average RS strength value for the same type of CLT specimens. The test results showed that the CLT specimens pressed with the higher clamping pressure had slightly higher average RS strength. The specimens with thinner cross layers also had higher RS strength than the specimens with thicker cross layers.
The objective of this research was to determine the feasibility of using lumber from Northeastern U.S. forests and laminated strand lumber (LSL) in cross laminated timber (CLT). Three-layer 105 mm x 1.32 m x 2.45 m CLT panels consisting solely of Spruce-Pine-Fir (South) and 1.35E LSL were manufactured by hand. Four-point bending tests were performed for specimens in the minor and major strength directions. From these tests, bending strengths and elastic and shear stiffnesses were determined for both strength directions. The all-SPFs lay-up exceeded the design requirements of CLT grade E1 and the all-LSL lay-up exceeded those of CLT grade E3. Therefore, low grade SPFs could be used to create high grade CLT panels. In addition, the use of LSL as the cross-ply material in CLT could increase the perpendicular-to-grain shear strength of CLT designs in comparison to typical lumber, which can enhance overall panel stiffness and strength.
North American cross laminated timber is currently made of softwood lumber following the guidelines of the ANSI/APA PRG-320 manufacturing standard. In this study, the potential of manufacturing CLT panels using various hardwood species and engineered wood products (EWP) was investigated for their compatibility and the impact on the dimensional stability and aesthetics of the end products. Yellow birch, trembling aspen, sugar maple, laminated strand lumber (LSL) and laminated veneer lumber (LVL) were compared to 100% spruce-pine-fir group species (SPF) lumber made CLT panel. The bond line performance of the assemblies was tested as well as the dimensional stability and appearance of the panels when subjected to conditions with equilibrium moisture contents (EMC) of 4.5%, 12% and 16%. Results showed that higher density hardwood species were prone to delamination. LSL, LVL and trembling aspen yielded promising delamination results. Best overall dimensional stability results were achieved with EWP inclusive configurations. Aesthetic integrity assessment showed that the use of hardwood for the core layer and edge gluing of softwood outer layers had a negative impact. Overall, the study showed a great potential for manufacturing future composite CLT (CCLT) products using EWP and low density hardwood species. The cost premium of using these alternative materials would need to be offset by valuable sets of properties or by a reduction of the manufacturing cost.
Planar (rolling) shear properties in cross laminated timber (CLT) is an important factor that should be considered for CLT structural components with short span or openings. The planar shear properties of SPF (Spruce-pine-fir) dimension lumber and laminated veneer lumber (LVL) were measured using a modified approach in this study. The failure modes in planar shear tests were investigated by visual inspection and optical microscope. Hybrid CLT (HCLT) was fabricated using lumber and/or LVL, and its bending properties (in major strength direction) were evaluated. It was found that SPF had higher planar shear strength and modulus than LVL. The failure mode of HCLT with LVL as cross layer in planar shear test was shear failure along the glue line direction, however, the typical failure modes of HCLT with SPF as cross layer in planar shear test included rolling shear failure along the growth ring direction, shear failure along the wood ray direction and shear failure along glue line direction. The bending properties of the generic CLT had been improved by using LVL as parallel layers and been reduced by using LVL as cross layer. The planar shear failure of cross layer in the zone between loading point and support point was the typical failure mode of CLT and HCLT in bending test.
The design and construction of temporary military structures has changed little since World War II. While these structures are lightweight and rapidly deployable, they require a sizeable workforce to construct and provide minimal ballistic and blast protection for occupants. Cross-laminated timber (CLT) is a relatively new prefabricated engineered wood product that is strong, stiff, quick to build, and has the potential to offer inherent ballistic and blast resistance compared to traditional wood products. The orthotropic nature of CLT coupled with the energy absorbing capacity of the thick wood panels warrant further investigation into the viability of CLT for temporary military structures. To that end, the research presented in this thesis seeks to better understand the ballistic and blast response of CLT panels and to develop evaluation criteria for the use of CLT in temporary military structures. Specific areas of investigation included: 1) experimental testing of the ballistic resistance of CLT panels, conducting in conjunction with U.S. Army laboratories in Aberdeen Proving Grounds, Maryland and Vicksburg, Mississippi; 2) the design, prototyping, and experimental testing of enhanced CLT panels to further improve ballistic performance; 3) a qualitative analysis of CLT panels under ballistic impact resistance mechanisms; 4) the development of a CLT blast analysis tool to predict the elastic response of CLT to blast loadings; and 5) the development of a simplified tool to identify evaluation criteria for temporary military structure material selection, including conventional materials as well as CLT. Specimens in this research consisted of commercially produced Spruce-Pine-Fir CLT as well as Southern Pine CLT specimens fabricated specifically for this research. Ballistic testing of both types of conventional CLT indicate that the material’s inherent penetration resistance is significantly greater than that of dimension lumber and plywood used in current common temporary military structures. The testing shows that current U.S. military design guidelines (UFC 4-023-07), used for determining required wood thickness based on ballistic threat, under predicts the ballistic performance of CLT. From testing and analysis, the thesis develops updated equations for predicting the thickness of CLT required for ballistic protection. A qualitative analysis of ballistic specimens identified local failure modes in the CLT and links the observed damage the anisotropic material properties, grading, and defects in sawn timbers. Enhanced CLT specimens were fabricated using various hardening materials including thin metal plates and gratings, polymer-based armors, and fiber-reinforced epoxy matrix panels. The enhanced CLTs were evaluated based on ease of production, ballistic resistance as compared to conventional CLT, and cost-benefit analysis. The shear analogy method was incorporated into a single-degree-of-freedom blast analysis to predict the response of different types and sizes of CLT panels under blast loads within the elastic regime. The tool was validated using field data from low-level live blast tests and showed good agreement with the field data. Finally, tailored evaluation criteria for comparative assessment of construction materials for use in temporary military structures – considering issues of cost, the logistics of in-theater deployment, energy consumption and force protection were developed and applied through using the AHP decision-making process.
There is a need for renewable building materials that are suitable replacements for conventional building materials such as steel and concrete. Cross-laminated timber (CLT) is a relatively new composite timber product with increasing use and interest in North America due to its renewable properties. Due to the unique environmental and mechanical properties of CLT, the possibility for rapid construction, and familiarity with the base material (timber), it follows that CLT may be promising for use in temporary military housing. In order to be a material for consideration in temporary military structures, CLT must be evaluated for force protection (i.e. blast effects). To investigate this possibility, the authors used data from live blasting testing conducted by WoodWorks at the US Air Force Civil Engineer Center on multiple two-storey, single-bay CLT structures. A single degree of freedom model (SDOF) was used in conjunction with the shear analogy method to predict the behavior of the CLT structures in the elastic regime. Through the CLT SDOF model, the paper highlights the necessity for further testing of CLT under blast loadings to quantify the effects of shear, boundary conditions, dynamic strength, and other properties.
One component PUR adhesive is widely used in engineered wood products applications, such as cross-laminated timber (CLT). However, the dramatic deterioration of PUR adhesive bond strength at elevated temperature can out tremendously threat for tall wood building, especially under fire. In this project, we are aiming to improving the bond strength of the PUR adhesive at high temperature by incorporating chemically modified halloysite to improve the poor interface between inorganic fillers and the polymer matrices. To improve the interaction with PUR (Loctite UR20 by Henkel®), the halloysite was chemically grafted with polymeric diphenylmethane diisocyanate (pMDI) (pMDI-H). The effect of adding pMDI modified halloysite to the PUR adhesives was investigated in terms of nanofiller dispersibility, thermal and mechanical properties of the pMDI-halloysite-PUR composite film, and the bonding shear strength of the glued Douglas fir and Spruce-Pine-Fir (SPF) shear blocks under different temperature.
Significant improvement of the bond shear strength can be observed with the addition of 5 and 10% of pMDI-modified PUR adhesive, and the key research findings are summarized as below,
a. pMDI can be successfully grafted onto hydroxylated halloysites to improve its dispersibility in one-component PUR adhesive;
b. Addition of pMDI-H into PUR adhesive can lead to improved glass transition temperature and storage modulus. In contrast, no significant enhancement was observed in h-H added PUR films due to the poor dispersibility;
c. Addition of up to 10% h-H and pMDI-H did not show significant change of the shear strength at 20 °C for both Douglas Fir and SPF;
d. Significant enhancement of shear strength at elevated temperature (60-100 °C) can be observed for 5% and 10% pMDI-H modified PUR adhesive, showing 17% improvement for Douglas Fir and 27-37% for SPF.
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