Knots are usually regarded as defects when grading lumber. In order to evaluate a member under out-of-plane loading, shear strength is one of the major mechanical properties, specifically, rolling shear (RS) strength is one of the critical mechanical properties of Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT), which determines the flexural strength of CLT under short-span bending loads. Lower grade lumber with a higher percentage of knots is recommended to be utilized for the cross-layer laminations which are mainly responsible for resisting shear stresses. Firstly, shear tests were performed in order to evaluate the effect of knots on longitudinal shear strength using shear blocks. After that, the effect of knots on the RS strength of 3-ply southern yellow pine CLT were investigated by experimental tests and an analytical model. Center-point bending tests with a span-to-depth ratio of 6 and two-plate shear tests with a loading angle of 14° were conducted on six CLT configurations composed of different types of cross layer laminations: clear flatsawn lumber with/without pith, lumber with sound knots with/without pith, and lumber with decayed knots with/without pith. The shear analogy method was implemented to evaluate the RS strength values from the bending test results, which were also compared against the results from the two-plate shear tests. It was found that: (1) The shear blocks containing sound knots had higher shear strength than matched clear shear blocks, the shear blocks containing unsound knots had lower shear strength than the matched clear shear blocks. (2) CLT specimens with cross-layer laminations with either sound knots or decayed knots had higher RS strength. (3) In general, the shear analogy method underestimated the RS strength of CLT specimens containing knots and pith.
Southern Pine (SP) is one of the fastest growing softwood species in the Southern Forest of United States. With its high strength to weight ratio, SP becomes an ideal candidate for manufacturing engineered wood products such as cross laminated timber (CLT). Two batches of CLT panels were manufactured using visually graded SP lumbers in this study: pilot-scale panels in a laboratory setting and full-size panels in a manufacturing plant environment. The first batch of pilot-scale CLT panels was manufactured at Clemson University. The second batch of full-scale CLT panels (3m x 12.2m) was produced and CNC-sized by Structurlam in Penticton, Canada and shipped to Clemson University for testing. Four types of structural wood adhesives were selected in the panel production, namely Melamine Formaldehyde (MF), Phenol Resorcinol Formaldehyde (PRF), Polyurethane (PUR) and Emulsion Polymer Isocyanate (EPI). This paper presents the manufacturing process of SP CLT in a laboratory setting as well as structural performance verification of 3- ply SP CLT in terms of rolling shear and bending properties. The obtained performance data of 3-ply CLT in both major and minor strength directions is verified against PRG-320 Standard for Performance Rated Cross Laminated Timber. Tested results are presented and discussed.
This article outlines the structural design approach used for the Brock Commons Student Residence project, an 18-storey wood building at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, Canada. When completed in summer 2017, it will be the tallest mass timber hybrid building in the world at 53 meters high. Fast + Epp are the structural engineers, working in conjunction with Acton Ostry Architects and Hermann Kaufmann Architekten. Total project costs, inclusive of fees, permits etc. are $51.5M CAD.
This thesis deals with the shear design of Cross Laminated Timber (CLT) elements stressed by concentrated loads which are locally reinforced by means of self-tapping screws with continuous threads. A simplified model is presented using an effective width for the calculation of the shear stresses in the vicinity of point supports or concentrated loads. Laboratory tests supply material-mechanical principles to determine the interaction of rolling shear stresses and compression perpendicular to the grain. In addition to experimental tests theoretical models are developed to examine the load bearing behaviour of CLT-elements reinforced by self-tapping screws. Preliminary tests with plate elements provide initial experience with these reinforcements under biaxial load transfer. Finally a design concept validated by means of the test results is proposed.
In timber construction, curved timber components have been used repeatedly. Yet the use of curved CLT elements is a relatively recent phenomenon. To obtain a European Technical Approval (ETA) for so-called radius timber (single curved CLT elements), Holzbau Unterrainer GmbH commissioned the accredited testing institution TVFA – Innsbruck to carry out the tests required for this purpose. To this end, overall 158 tests were performed in building component dimensions from December 2013 to May 2014, and several laboratory tests were carried out to monitor adhesive joint quality. Due to the single curved shape of radius timber elements, it is key to particularly focus on possible implications on load bearing capacity due to pre-stress of the slats and to the tensile stress perpendicular to grain resulting from deflection forces. To comply with the criteria laid down in the semi-probabilistic safety concept used in Eurocode 5, the impact caused by these pre-curvatures on strength, rigidity and gross density must be known.
Concentrated loads on Cross Laminated Timber elements (CLT) in areas of point supports or load applications cause high local shear stresses. Inclined self-tapping screws with continuous threads have turned out to be an effective reinforcement. As neither the German design standard DIN 1052 [2] nor technical approvals cover this construction method a research project funded by the AiF [3] was conducted to gather basic information for its application. These basics include the determination of shear stresses next to concentrated loads, the interaction of compression perpendicular to the grain and rolling shear stresses as well as theoretical and experimental examinations of the load bearing behaviour of reinforced CLT-elements. This paper presents the main research results. A design concept validated by means of the test results is proposed [4].
The rolling shear modulus is very low, leading to rolling shear failure in the cross layer of cross-laminated timber (CLT). The overall objective of this thesis work was to develop an appropriate methodology for measuring the rolling shear properties of CL T. This research consists of three article format chapters, which were aimed at: 1) obtaining a better understanding of advantages and disadvantages of using the bending test and twoplate shear test for determining the rolling shear properties of 3-layer CLT, 2) investigating the influence of growth ring orientation and laminates thickness of cross layer on the rolling shear properties, and 3) verifying the feasibility of two-plate shear test method for measuring the rolling shear properties of 3-layer CL T beam. It is recommended that the two-plate shear test be used as a testing method for measuring the rolling shear modulus of a cross layer, which can be used to calculate the deflection of a 3-layer CLT beam using the shear analogy method at a given span-to-depth ratio ranging from 6 to 50. An adjustment factor (a) was proposed to predict the deflection under the centre-point bending test at various span-to-depth ratios. The two-plate shear test method can also be used to measure the rolling shear strength, and can provide a reasonable estimate of the load-carrying capacity of 3-layer CLT beam at a relatively large span-to-depth ratio, but a conservative estimate at a small span-to-depth ratio. In summary, it shall be feasible to adopt the two-plate shear test for determining the rolling shear modulus and strength of cross layer in CLT.
In this study, the duration-of-load and size effects on the rolling shear strength of CLT manufactured from MPB-afflicted lumber were evaluated. The study of the duration-of-load effect on the strength properties of wood products is typically challenging; and, additional complexity exists with the duration-of-load effect on the rolling shear strength of CLT, given the necessary consideration of crosswise layups of wood boards, existing gaps and glue bonding between layers.
In this research, short-term ramp loading tests and long-term trapezoidal fatigue loading tests (damage accumulation tests) were used to study the duration-of-load behaviour of the rolling shear strength of CLT. In the ramp loading test, three-layer CLT products showed a relatively lower rolling shear load-carrying capacity. Torque loading tests on CLT tubes were also performed. The finite element method was adopted to simulate the structural behaviour of CLT specimens. Evaluation of the rolling shear strength based on test data was discussed. The size effect on the rolling shear strength was investigated.
The results suggest that the rolling shear duration-of-load strength adjustment factor for CLT is more severe than the general duration-ofload adjustment factor for lumber, and this difference should be considered in the introduction of CLT into the building codes for engineered wood design.
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