Results from a series of blast tests performed in October 2016 on three two-story, single-bay cross-laminated timber (CLT) structures demonstrated the ability of CLT construction to resist airblast loads in a predictable fashion. These tests were performed on structures without superimposed load to limit inertial resistance. Subsequently, a follow-on series of tests was performed to investigate the response of axially-loaded CLT construction. Panels damaged during the preceding test were removed and replaced. Axial load was applied using precast concrete blocks to simulate the loaded condition of a five-story building at the first-floor front panel of the structures. These test structures were exposed to two shots: the first was designed to keep the structures within their respective elastic ranges while the second was designed to push the structures beyond their elastic limits. Reflected pressure and peak deflections were recorded at the front panels of the test structures to document the two-way panel load distribution behavior under a dynamic load event and the clearing of the shock wave. Prior to conducting the blast tests, a small number of tests were performed on a load tree test apparatus to aid in test planning by investigating the post-peak response of individual CLT panels of various lengths to quasi-static out-of-plane and axial loads applied simultaneously. This paper provides an overview of the results obtained from both the quasi-static and blast tests of axially-loaded CLT. Additionally, the paper compares CLT structure, component, and connection response across the suite of data. Conclusions are offered to assist engineers in the design of load bearing CLT construction exposed to airblast loads.
The focus of this research is the connection between steel frame and the infill wall. Over 100 conventional bracket-type connections with various combinations of bracket and fasteners with cross-laminated timber were tested, investigated and assessed for damage under seismic loading protocols for a hybrid application. An energy-based formulation according to Krätzig was applied to calculate the development of the damage index, and the resulting index was validated with visual observation. Six of the connections were modeled in OpenSees. For the modeling, a CUREE-10 parameter model was chosen to reproduce the test curves. The load-displacement results from both test and model were analyzed; the first method according to ASTM standards, where the envelope curve of the hysteretic results are considered and plotted in an equivalent energy elastic-plastic curve (EEEP). The second analyzing method used, was Krätzig’s damage accumulation model. Throughout all six combinations and both loading directions (parallel- and perpendicular-to-the-grain) a major difference was found in the analyzing methods. The EEEP curve roughly approximates the performance but with the damage accumulation method showed that analysis of the subsequent cycles is required to better reflect the empirical performance of the connections. To avoid the extensive destruction of a bracket type connection after completion of seismic loadings, a new approach was chosen. It was found that a tube connection can obtain comparably similar strength results as a conventional bracket connection. The computed mechanical properties of bracket-type and tube-type connections were compared and evaluated. The new tube connection showed great potential for future timber-steel hybrid structures and their connecting challenge. A total of 27 connection assemblies were tested under quasi-static monotonic and reversed cyclic loads. The tube connections showed two major differences when compared to traditional bracket connections: i) the completely linear elastic behaviour at the beginning, and ii) the continued load increase after yielding. Both phenomena are founded in the geometry of that connector effectively making the novel connector a very promising alternative.
The research presented in this paper examines the shear resistance performance of self-tapping screws (STS) in three-ply cross-laminated timber (CLT) panels. Specifically, the feasibility of using innovative STS assemblies with double inclination of fasteners was investigated for the shear connection of CLT panels. The specimens (1.5×1.5 m) were subjected to quasi-static and reversed-cyclic loading. The tests were set up to approximate pure shear loading, with three-panel CLT assemblies connected with STS. The resulting load-displacement and hysteretic curves were used to determine an equivalent energy elastic-plastic curve to estimate assembly capacity, yield load, yield displacement, ductility ratio, stiffness, and damping. Excellent structural performance in terms of capacity and stiffness was obtained while still providing the required ductility for the system to be used in seismic applications. The average static and cyclic yield loads were 6.0 kN/screw and 5.9 kN/screw, respectively. Average static and cyclic and ductility ratios were 7.7 and 4.1, respectively, allowing the connection to be classified as highly ductile under quasi-static loading and moderately ductile under reversed cyclic loading. The data obtained allow engineers to specify an innovative connection assembly with double inclination of fasteners for lateral load–resisting systems of CLT structures.
Karagozian & Case (K&C), a science and engineering firm based in California, is seeking to develop and execute a two-phase testing program to demonstrate the blast-resistance capability of cross laminated timber (CLT). K&C’s proposal outlines a plan that will use full-size reinforced CLT panels to demonstrate that panels are capable of resisting severe blast, ballistic, and forced entry threats while still maintaining their bond line integrity under both quasi-static and dynamic loading conditions. If the proposed effort is successful, blast testing on reinforced CLT panels will be pursued in a follow-on second phase.
The paper presents the design and detailing, and the experimental quasi-static 2/3 scale tests of two post-tensioned wall systems: a single (more traditional) wall system and a new configuration comprising of a column-wall-column coupled system. The latter allows avoiding displacement incompatibilities issues between the wall and the diaphragm by using the boundary columns as supports.
This paper presents selected results of connector testing and wall testing which were part of a Forest Products Lab-funded project undertaken at Colorado State University in an effort to determine seismic performance factors for cross laminated timber (CLT) shear walls in the United States. Archetype development, which is required as part of the process, is also discussed. Connector tests were performed on generic angle brackets which were tested under shear and uplift and performed as expected with consistent nail withdrawal observed. Quasi-static cyclic tests were conducted on CLT shear walls to systematically investigate the effects of various parameters. Boundary constraints and gravity loading were both found to have a beneficial effect on the wall performance, i.e. higher strength and deformation capacity. Specific gravity also had a significant effect on wall behaviour while CLT thickness was less influential. Higher aspect ratio panels (4:1) demonstrated lower stiffness and substantially larger deformation capacity compared to moderate aspect ratio panels (2:1). However, based on the test results there is likely a lower bound of 2:1 for aspect ratio where it ceases to have any beneficial effect on wall behaviour. This is likely due to the transition from the dominant rocking behaviour to sliding behaviour.
Multi-storey platform cross laminated timber (CLT) structures are becoming progressively desirable for engineers and owners. This is because they offer many significant advantages such as speed of fabrication, ease of construction, and excellent strength to weight ratio. With platform construction, stories are fixed together in a way that each floor bears into load bearing walls, therewith creating a platform for the next level. The latest research findings have shown that CLT platform buildings constructed with traditional fasteners can experience a high level of damage especially in those cases where the walls have adopted hold-down brackets and shear connectors with nails, rivets or screws. Thus, the current construction method for platform CLT structures is less than ideal in terms of damage avoidance. The main objective of this study is to develop a low damage platform timber panelised structural system using a new configuration of slip friction devices in lieu of traditional connectors. A numerical model of such a system is developed for a low rise CLT building and then is subjected to reversed cyclic load simulations in order to investigate its seismic performance. The result of these quasi-static simulations demonstrated that the system maintained the strength through numerous cycles of loading and unloading. In addition to this, the system is capable of absorbing significant amount of energy. The findings of this study demonstrate the proposed concept has the potential to be developed as a low damage seismic solution for CLT platform buildings.
Three innovative massive wooden shear-wall systems (Cross-Laminated-Glued Wall, Cross-Laminated-Stapled Wall, Layered Wall with dovetail inserts) were tested and their structural behaviour under seismic action was assessed with numerical simulations. The wall specimens differ mainly in the method used to assemble the layers of timber boards composing them. Quasi-static cyclic loading tests were carried out and then reproduced with a non-linear numerical model calibrated on the test results to estimate the most appropriate behaviour factor for each system. Non-linear dynamic simulations of 15 artificially generated seismic shocks showed that these systems have good dissipative capacity when correctly designed and that they can be assigned to the medium ductility class of Eurocode 8. This work also shows the influence of deformations in wooden panels and base connectors on the behaviour factor and dissipative capacity of the system.
This paper summarises the experimental and numerical investigation conducted on the main connection of a novel steel-timber hybrid system called FFTT. The component behaviour of the hybrid system was investigated using quasi-static monotonic and reversed cyclic tests. Different steel profiles (wide flange I-sections and hollow rectangular sections) and embedment approaches for the steel profiles (partial and full embedment) were tested. The results demonstrated that when using an appropriate connection layout, the desired strong-column weak-beam failure mechanism was initiated and excessive wood crushing was avoided. A numerical model was developed that reasonably reflected the real component behaviour and can subsequently be used for numerical sensitivity studies and parameter optimization. The research presented herein serves as a precursor for providing design guidance for the FFTT system as an option for tall wood-hybrid buildings in seismic regions.
This thesis fills the existing knowledge gap between detailed design and global behaviour of hybrid systems through an experimental study on an innovative timber-steel hybrid system called “FFTT”. The FFTT system relies on wall panels of mass timber such as CLT for gravity and lateral load resistance and embedded steel sections for ductility under the earthquake loads. An important step towards the practical application of the FFTT system is obtaining the proof that the connections facilitate the desired ductile failure mode. The experimental investigation was carried out at the facility of FPInnovations, Vancouver. The testing program consisted of quasi-static monotonic and reverse cyclic tests on the timber-steel hybrid system with different configurations. The two beam profiles, wide flange I-sections and hollow rectangular sections were tested. The interaction between the steel beams and CLT panels and the effect of the embedment depth, cross-section reduction and embedment length were closely examined. The study demonstrated that when using an appropriate steel section, the desired ‘Strong Column–Weak Beam’ failure mechanism was initiated and excessive wood crushing was avoided. While wide-flange I-sections were stiffer and stronger, the hollow sections displayed better post-yield behaviour with higher energy dissipation capacity through several cycles of deformation under cyclic loads. The out-of-plane buckling at the point of yielding was the major setback of the embedment of wide-flange I-sections. This research served as a precursor for providing design guidance for the FFTT system as one option for tall wood buildings in high seismic regions.
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