This paper presents a study on evaluating rolling shear (RS) strength properties of cross laminated timber (CLT) using torsional shear tests and bending tests. The CLT plates were manufactured with Spruce-Pine-Fir boards and glued with polyurethane adhesive. Two types of layups (3-layer and 5-layer) and two clamping pressures (0.1 MPa and 0.4 MPa) were studied. For the torsional shear tests, small shear block specimens were sampled from the CLT plates and the cross layers were processed to have an annular cross section. Strip specimens were simply sampled from the CLT plates for the bending tests. Based on the failure loads, RS strength properties were evaluated by torsional shear formula, composite beam formulae as well as detailed finite element models, respectively. It was found that the two different test methods yielded different average RS strength value for the same type of CLT specimens. The test results showed that the CLT specimens pressed with the higher clamping pressure had slightly higher average RS strength. The specimens with thinner cross layers also had higher RS strength than the specimens with thicker cross layers.
Massive timber panels (MTPs) has shown a great potential in construction of tall buildings. Evaluation of the face-bond strength of MTPs is of an interest to use of this kind of products. This study was aimed at developing an appropriate test procedure for evaluating the adhesive bond strength of cross-laminated laminated strand lumber (LSL). Short span bending tests were conducted on two-layer asymmetric cross-laminated LSL specimens, which were adhesively bonded using two-component polyurethane (PUR) and polyvinyl acetate (PVAc). For comparison, block shear specimens were tested as well. It was found that the 2-layer asymmetric cross-laminated specimen assembly under the short span bending could be used to differentiate between good and poor bond quality.
Bending strength is a critical property of cross laminated timber (CLT) in structural applications, especially in floor of multi-story buildings. Therefore, this study was targeted to evaluate bending strength of CLT made out of poplar (populous alba). Polyurethane adhesive was used for constructing of CLT (300 g/m2). The thickness of planks was used in this study was 16 mm. The results have indicated that modulus of rupture (MOR) and modulus of elasticity (MOE) of CLT with 45o alternating transverse layer were increased 14 and 15%, respectively in comparison with 90o layers. Also, modulus of rupture (MOR) and modulus of elasticity (MOE) of CLT consist of layers with 4cm in width were increased 14 and 5%, respectively in comparison with layers 9cm in width. The results concluded that by layers with lower width, and also 45o alternating layer configuration could be constructed CLT from fast growing trees such as poplar with a considerable bending strength.
To better use the second-growth wood resources in value-added applications, this work addressed the manufacturing aspects of cross-laminated timber (CLT) products from western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg) and amabilis fir (Abies amabilis (Dougl.) Forbes) (or hem-fir) harvested from coastal British Columbia, Canada. Small CLT billets (nominal 610 mm×610 mm) were made to examine CLT bond quality and durability through block shear and delamination tests. Two types of adhesives, single-component polyurethane (PUR) and emulsion polymer isocyanate (EPI) and two critical applied pressure parameters (0.28 and 0.83 MPa) were adopted to manufacture hem-fir CLT. It was found that the adhesive type and applied pressure significantly affected wood failure percentage (WFP) and delamination of hem-fir CLT. When PUR adhesive was used, CLT made at 0.83 MPa pressure yielded significantly higher WFP and lower delamination than that made at 0.28 MPa pressure. The results demonstrated that despite the fact that hem-fir lumber is not particularly specified in the current North American CLT standard, it could be used for manufacturing CLT with the required panel bond quality.
Effective preservative treatments for Canadian glulam products are needed to maintain markets for mass timber on building facades, access markets with significant termite hazards, and expand markets for wood bridges. For all three applications, borate-treatment of lamina before gluing would be preferred as it would lead to maximum preservative penetration. However, the need to plane after treatment and prior to gluing removes the best-treated part of the wood, and creates a disposal issue for treated planer shavings. The present research evaluates the block shear resistance of glulam prepared from untreated and borate-treated lamina with a polyurethane adhesive. Borate treatment was associated with a small but statistically significant loss in median shear strength when evaluated dry; however, there was no difference between the performance of untreated and borate-treated samples when exposed to the vacuum-pressure soak/dry or the boil-dry-freeze/dry procedures. Further work is needed to modify the composition or application of the resin to improve shear strength for glulam applications and ensure consistent performance. However, overall, these data indicate that samples prepared from borate-treated lamina perform similarly in terms of block shear resistance to those prepared from untreated lamina.
Eucalyptus grandis is South Africa‘s most important commercial hardwood species. The availability of E. grandis and its fast growth rate creates the opportunity to explore its uses further. Cross-laminated timber (CLT) is a prefabricated multilayer engineered panel product made of at least three layers, with the grain direction of some or all of the consecutive layers orthogonally orientated. In order to add value to E. grandis, reduce the export of low-cost chips, increase the profit margins of local plantation owners and create jobs, the development of E. grandis CLT in South Africa may be an option. There is concern among some researchers that the bonding quality evaluation tests proposed by CLT standards have been developed for glulam and are too severe for CLT. These researchers proposed that further analysis and possibly even revision of the test methods should be considered. There is also a need to evaluate the mechanical properties of CLT panels made of E. grandis to completely understand the structural performance of these panels, including their bond quality and durability, and therefore be able to rely on E. grandis CLT as a construction material. The objectives of this study were: . To evaluate the face-bonding quality of CLT panels from E. grandis timber bonded with a one component polyurethane resin; . To determine the influence of material and processing parameters on the face-bonding quality of CLT manufactured from E. grandis timber bonded with a one component polyurethane resin; . To analyse different testing methods for evaluating the face-bonding quality of CLT. The design for this experiment consisted of eight groups with different combinations of parameters for density, grooves and pressure per group. Four different testing methods were used to evaluate the face-bonding quality of CLT panels from E. grandis and to determine the effect of parameters on face-bonding quality: A delamination test on 100 x 100 mm block specimens (Test A), a shear test on 40 x 40 mm specimens (Test B), a shear test on 40 x 40 mm specimens with grain direction 45° to load direction (Test C) and a combined delamination and shear test on 70 x 70 mm specimens with grain direction 45° to load direction (Test D). Results of the statistical analysis indicated that E. grandis CLT made with 1C-PUR adhesive can obtain excellent face-bonding quality using a clamping pressure of 0.7 MPa and with no stress relief grooves present. All samples passed the shear test (Test B) which is the reference test method proposed by EN 16351 (2015). It was found that a strength component and durability component will be an advantage when testing the bond quality of CLT. Shear tests at 45° to the load direction did not completely eliminate the rolling shear effect. The combined delamination and shear test (Test D), seems to have potential as a good test for bond quality since it is a combination of a durability and shear strength test. There are still questions about the relative advantages of specific test methods for bond quality, especially on the effect of rolling shear. Further work should focus on this aspect and the use of stress models might be a way of gaining further insights.
In this study, flexuralbehaviors of glue laminated timber beams manufactured from Pinussylvestristree were investigated by comparing the results with those of massive timber beams. The main variables considered in the study were number of laminations, types of adhesive materials and reinforcement nets used in the lamination surfaces. In scope of the experimental study, glue laminated beams with 5 and 3 lamination layers were manufactured with 90 x 90 mm beam sections. In the lamination process epoxy and polyurethane glue were used. Morever, in order to improve the bond strength at the lamination surface, aluminium, fiberglass and steel wire nets were used at the lamination surfaces. Load–displacement responses, ultimate capacities, ductility ratios, initial stiffness, energy dissipation capacities and failure mechanisms of glue laminated beams were compared with those of massive beams. It was observed that the general bending responses of glue laminated beams were better than those of massive beams. In addition to that the use of reinforcement nets at the lamination surfaces increased the ultimate load capacities of the tested beams. The highest ultimate load capacities were oberved from the tests of glue laminated beams manufactured using five laminated layers and retrofitted with polyurethane glue using steel wire reinforcement nets, in the direction normal to the lamination surface. Finally, the finite element simulations of some test specimens were performed to observe the accuracy of finite element technology in the estimation of ultimate capacities of glue laminated timber beams.
This project was conducted to quantify the performance of adhesives bond lines under shear load subject to elevated temperature. The results add to the understanding of the performance of polyurethane adhesive bond lines under elevated temperatures to address areas of fire safety concern under the current building codes. The project focused on studying the shear bond capacity of three wood species by using 3 types of adhesives with/without nanoclay treatment at 4 temperature levels. The three wood species are Douglas-Fir, Hemlock and SPF. The adhesives are polyurethane (PU), Phenol-Resorcinol-Formaldehyde (PRF) and Epoxy. PU and PRF specimens were also tested with nanoclay treatment and without nanoclay treatment. Epoxy specimens were tested without nanoclay treatment only. The temperature levels considered were room temperature (about 20 °C), 60°C, 80°C and 100°C. The results indicate that the influence of elevated temperature on the shear bond strength of PU and PRF adhesive was in the range of 20 to 30% regardless of nanoclay treatment. Regardless of species, PU or PRF, with or without nanoclay, the average shear strength for 100°C oven temperature treatment ranged from 6.0 to 7.5 MPa. In the case of SPF PU specimens treatment with nanoclay reduced the variability of shear strength significantly from 12% at room temperature to 5% after 100°C oven treatment. This is an important aspect that needs further verification for enhancement of performance. Finally the data in this study can be used to support modeling of timber component subjected to elevated temperature.
This paper provides understanding of the fire performance of exposed cross-laminated-timber (CLT) in large enclosures. An office-type configuration has been represented by a 3.75 by 7.6 by 2.4 m high enclosure constructed of non-combustible blockwork walls, with a large opening on one long face. Three experiments are described in which propane-fuelled burners created a line fire that impinged on different ceiling types. The first experiment had a non-combustible ceiling lining in which the burners were set to provide flames that extended approximately halfway along the underside of the ceiling. Two further experiments used exposed 160 mm thick (40-20-40-20-40 mm) loaded CLT panels with a standard polyurethane adhesive between lamella in one experiment and a modified polyurethane adhesive in the other. Measurements included radiative heat flux to the ceiling and the floor, temperatures within the depth of the CLT and the mass loss of the panels. Results show the initial peak rate of heat release with the exposed CLT was up to three times greater when compared with the non-combustible lining. As char formed, this stabilised at approximately one and a half times that of the non-combustible lining. Premature char fall-off (due to bond-line failure) was observed close to the burners in the CLT using standard polyurethane adhesive. However, both exposed CLT ceiling experiments underwent auto-extinction of flaming combustion once the burners were switched off.
This study investigates timber connections with flexible polyurethane adhesives, which prove to have the potential for timber-adhesive composite structures without mechanical connections for seismic regions. Results of conducted cyclic double lap-shear adhesive timber joints tests were compared with available experimental results on timber connections with standard mechanical dowel-type fasteners and with results of numerical finite element analysis. The study found that the shear strength, elastic stiffness and strength degradation capacity of the flexible adhesive connections were significantly higher compared to mechanical fasteners commonly used in seismic-resistant timber connections. The latter, however, manifested larger ultimate displacements but also yielded at lower displacements.
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