This thesis presents a state of the art on moisture induced stresses in glulam, complemented with own findings. These are covered in detail in the appended papers. The first objective was to find a suitable model to describe moisture induced stresses, in particular with respect to mechanosorption. A review of existing models led to the conclusion that the selection of correct material parameters is more critical to obtain reliable results than the formulation of the mechanosorption model. A series of laboratory tests was thus performed in order to determine the parameters required for the model and to experimentally measure moisture induced stresses in glulam subjected to one dimensional wetting/drying. Special attention was paid to using glulam from the same batch for all the experimental measurements in order to calibrate the numerical model reliably. The results of the experiments confirmed that moisture induced stresses are larger during wetting than during drying, and that the tensile stresses could clearly exceed the characteristic tensile strength perpendicular to grain.
This study investigates the in-plane stiffness of CLT floor diaphragms and addresses the lateral load distribution within buildings containing CLT floors. In practice, it is common to assume the floor diaphragm as either flexible or rigid, and distribute the lateral load according to simple hand calculations methods. Here, the applicability of theses assumption to CLT floor diaphragms is investigated. There is limited number of studies on the subject of in-plane behaviour of CLT diaphragms in the literature. Many of these studies involve testing of the panels or the connections utilized in CLT diaphragms. This study employs numerical modeling as a tool to address the in-plane behaviour of CLT diaphragms. The approach taken to develop the numerical models in this thesis has not been applied so far to CLT floor diaphragms. Detailed 2D finite element models of selective CLT floor diaphragm configurations are generated and analysed in ANSYS. The models contain a smeared panel-to-panel connection model, which is calibrated with test data of a special type of CLT connection with self-tapping wood screws. The floor models are then extended to building models by adding shearwalls, and the lateral load distribution is studied for each building model. A design flowchart is also developed to aid engineers in finding the lateral load distribution for any type of building in a systematic approach. By a parametric study, the most influential parameters affecting the in-plane behaviour of CLT floor diaphragm and the lateral load distribution are identified. The main parameters include the response of the CLT panel-to-panel connections, the in-plane shear modulus of CLT panels, the stiffness of shearwalls, and the floor diaphragm configuration. It was found that the applicability of flexible or rigid diaphragm assumptions is primarily dependent on the relative stiffness of the CLT floor diaphragm and the shearwalls.
International Structural Engineering and Construction Conference
Research Status
Complete
Notes
June 18-23 2013, Hononlulu, Hawaii, USA
Summary
Woodframe construction in the United States has, by and large, performed well with regard to life-safety over the decades. However, older woodframe buildings, typically two- to four-stories in Northern and Southern California (as well as elsewhere), may have a soft and weak story which makes them susceptible to collapse during even moderate shaking. These buildings often have parking and/or open fronts and very few interior walls resulting in first story stiffness that is sometimes as low as 30% to 40% of the story above. Figure 1 shows a photo of a soft-story building undergoing retrofit in San Francisco. Most local jurisdictions recognize this as a disaster preparedness problem and have beenactively developing various ordinances and mitigation plans to address this threat. Some of the most visible efforts are taking place in San Francisco, Los Angeles, San Jose and other major metropolitan areas in the United States that have high seismic vulnerability. In 2008, the San Francisco Department of Building Inspection and the Applied Technology Council initiated the Community Action Plan for Seismic Safety (CAPSS) project with the main goal of identifying possible action plans for reducing earthquake risks in existing buildings. According to the CAPSS study, 43 to 80 percent of the multistory woodframe buildings in San Francisco will be deemed unsafe after a magnitude 7.2 earthquake and a quarter of these buildings would be expected to collapse.
The goal of this study was to analyze behavior of the cross-laminated timber (CLT) panel subjected to torsion and develop an efficient procedure for quick verification of numerical model of CLT that subsequently may be used for virtual prototyping of non-standard CLT products. Study used both experiments based on optical measurement using digital image correlation (DIC) and numerical modeling by means of finite element method (FEM). A physical torsion test of the CLT panel was first analyzed in terms of a displacement field that was computed on its surface. The FE simulation of the torsion test followed real boundary conditions and was carried out with use of 2 geometrically different FE models of the CLT. The first FE model did not take into account edgebonding of the lamellas, the second one demonstrated alternative manufacturing option by considering the lamellas’ edge-bonding. The experiment and FE simulations were mutually compared based on displacement paths created on the panel surface. Results showed that the presented procedure offers relatively easy way of verification of FE analyses of CLT. FE model with edge-bonding of lamellas exhibited higher stiffness and higher relative error to DIC measurement than FE model without edge-bonding. Edge-bonding of lamellas introduces influential factor in FE modeling of CLT and should be omitted for accurate and realistic FE analyses of their behavior. Study also showed that lack of orthotropic properties of Oregon hybrid poplar can be in FEA sufficiently substituted by using cottonwood properties. Combining the DIC measurement and FEM in the analysis of the CLT is favorable since it offers an full-field validation of numerical models, which can be subsequently used for virtual prototyping.
Three innovative massive wooden shear-wall systems (Cross-Laminated-Glued Wall, Cross-Laminated-Stapled Wall, Layered Wall with dovetail inserts) were tested and their structural behaviour under seismic action was assessed with numerical simulations. The wall specimens differ mainly in the method used to assemble the layers of timber boards composing them. Quasi-static cyclic loading tests were carried out and then reproduced with a non-linear numerical model calibrated on the test results to estimate the most appropriate behaviour factor for each system. Non-linear dynamic simulations of 15 artificially generated seismic shocks showed that these systems have good dissipative capacity when correctly designed and that they can be assigned to the medium ductility class of Eurocode 8. This work also shows the influence of deformations in wooden panels and base connectors on the behaviour factor and dissipative capacity of the system.
In this paper, an innovative type of mid-rise Cross Laminated Timber shear walls with coupling beams was designed. The 5-layer CLT panels were continuous along the height. Hold-downs and angle brackets were installed at the bottom of the panels. Coupling beams with energy dissipation devices were used to decrease the deformation and internal forces of the walls, providing adequate stiffness and strength. A numerical model was developed in OpenSees for a six storey prototype to investigate its seismic behaviour with different configurations. Strength degradation, stiffness degradation, and pinching effect were considered in the connection models. The structural performance was evaluated through a series of static and transient analyses. The simulation results indicated adequate lateral resistance and deformation capacity of this structural type. This study will lead to more application of large size CLT panels in multi-storey CLT buildings as lateral resistant systems.
This paper provides a systematic review of research on glued laminated timber beams with circular and rectangular openings. Experiments on girders with unreinforced openings varied several parameters, including the girder span and shape, opening position and shape, and the relationship between the stress state near the opening and the ratio of opening size to girder size. We compare experimental results with recommendations given by DIN 1052:2004-08, DIN EN 1995-1-1/NA: 2010, prEN 1995-1-1: Final Draft, analytical expressions, and other relevant standards, as well as with the results of numerical models using the finite element method. Because of its myriad complexities and uncertainties, this area remains open for further research and for implementation of that research into practical design guidelines and rules.
Cracks in timber members influence the stiffness and load-carrying behaviour but only rudimentary rules are given to evaluate cracked members. Therefore, an investigation to gather information about the most frequent characteristics of cracked timber structures has been carried out. This investigation provides the main characteristics of both the timber elements and the crack distributions encountered. These main characteristics have then been used to define a numerical model in order to investigate the impact of cracks on the stiffness and load-carrying capacity of timber beams. Based on these results, the existing rules considering cracks in timber beams can be evaluated and new rules can be developed.
The behaviour of multi-storey buildings braced with Cross-Laminated-Timber (CLT) cores and additional shear walls is examined based on numerical analyses of various 3-dimensional configurations. Two ways of calibrating numerical model are proposed according to codes and experimental test data respectively, including calibration of parameters that characterise connections between CLT panels in building cores and shear walls. Results of analyses of entire buildings are presented in terms of principal elastic periods, and base shear and up-lift forces. Discussion addresses primary issues associated with behaviour of such systems and modelling them.
International Journal of Advanced Structural Engineering
Summary
This paper presents analytical and numerical models for semirigid timber frame with Lagscrewbolt (LSB) connections. A series of static and reverse cyclic experimental tests were carried out for different beam sizes (400, 500, and 600 mm depth) and column–base connections with different numbers of LSBs (4, 5, 8). For the beam–column connections, with increase in beam depth, moment resistance and stiffness values increased, and ductility factor reduced. For the column–base connection, with increase in the number of LSBs, the strength, stiffness, and ductility values increased. A material model available in OpenSees, Pinching4 hysteretic model, was calibrated for all connection test results. Finally, analytical model of the portal frame was developed and compared with the experimental test results. Overall, there was good agreement with the experimental test results, and the Pinching4 hysteretic model can readily be used for full-scale structural model.
