Creep and duration of load characteristics of cross laminated timber (CLT) were evaluated from the test results of creep and duration of tests. Japanese Ceder (Cryptomeria japonica) was chosen for the specie for the laminations of the test specimens and API was chosen for the adhesive. The results are summarized as follows: (1) The creep factor [i.e. (Initial deflection + Creep deflection) / Initial deflection] for CLT was evaluated to be 2.0 and was almost equivalent to the creep factor commonly known for solid lumber. (2) The duration of load factor [i.e. Strength for 50 years duration of load / Strength for 10 minutes duration of load] of CLT was evaluated to be 0.66 and was almost equivalent to the duration of load factor measured for solid lumbers.
In this study, the duration-of-load and size effects on the rolling shear strength of CLT manufactured from MPB-afflicted lumber were evaluated. The study of the duration-of-load effect on the strength properties of wood products is typically challenging; and, additional complexity exists with the duration-of-load effect on the rolling shear strength of CLT, given the necessary consideration of crosswise layups of wood boards, existing gaps and glue bonding between layers.
In this research, short-term ramp loading tests and long-term trapezoidal fatigue loading tests (damage accumulation tests) were used to study the duration-of-load behaviour of the rolling shear strength of CLT. In the ramp loading test, three-layer CLT products showed a relatively lower rolling shear load-carrying capacity. Torque loading tests on CLT tubes were also performed. The finite element method was adopted to simulate the structural behaviour of CLT specimens. Evaluation of the rolling shear strength based on test data was discussed. The size effect on the rolling shear strength was investigated.
The results suggest that the rolling shear duration-of-load strength adjustment factor for CLT is more severe than the general duration-ofload adjustment factor for lumber, and this difference should be considered in the introduction of CLT into the building codes for engineered wood design.
In this study, the duration-of-load (DOL) effect on the rolling shear strength of cross laminated timber (CLT) was evaluated. A stress-based damage accumulation model is chosen to evaluate the DOL effect on the rolling shear strength of CLT. This model incorporates the established short-term rolling shear strength of material and predicts the time to failure under arbitrary loading history. The model was calibrated and verified based on the test data from low cycle trapezoidal fatigue tests (the damage accumulation tests). The long-term rolling shear behaviour of CLT can then be evaluated from this verified model. As the developed damage accumulation model is a probabilistic model, it can be incorporated into a time-reliability study. Therefore, a reliability assessment of the CLT products was performed considering short-term and snow loading cases. The reliability analysis results and factors reflecting the DOL effect on the rolling shear strength of CLT are compared and discussed. The results suggest that the DOL rolling shear strength adjustment factor for CLT is more severe than the general DOL adjustment factor for lumber; and, this difference should be considered in the introduction of CLT into the building codes for engineered wood design.
Cross-laminated timber (CLT) has been used extensively in timber construction. CLT panels are typically used in roofs and floors that carry a continuous load, and it is important to examine the long-term loading capacity of CLT. However, studies that focus on the long-term loading capacity of CLT are limited. To this end, we conducted long-term out-of-plane bending tests on seven-layer CLT made from Japanese larch (Larix kaempferi) under constant environmental conditions, investigated creep performance and duration of load, and experimentally analyzed creep rupture behavior. The mean estimated relative creep after 50 years was 1.49. The sample showed a satisfactory resistance to creep as a building material. The duration of load of most of the specimens in this study was shorter than the conventional value of small clear wood specimens. Specimens had a lower duration of load capacity than solid lumber. According to the results of survival analysis, a loading level of 70% or more caused the initial failure of specimens. Creep rupture of most of the specimens occurred at less deflection than displacement at failure in the short-term loading test. Additional studies focusing on the effects of finger joints, transverse layers, and width of a specimen on creep rupture behavior are suggested.
This paper presents a study on rolling shear damage accumulation and duration of load of cross-laminated timber (CLT) with low cycle fatigue tests. The study of the duration-of-load (DOL) effect on strength properties of wood products is typically challenging; it may be more challenging for non-edge-glued CLT considering crosswise layups of wood boards, existing gaps, and non-uniform stress distributions in cross layers. In experimental studies, short-term ramp loading tests and low cycle trapezoidal fatigue loading tests were used to study the DOL behaviour of the CLT rolling shear. The ramp tests were performed to establish the short-term CLT rolling shear strength properties. The low cycle trapezoidal fatigue tests were performed to evaluate the damage accumulation process for the matched specimens under controlled rolling shear stress levels. A stress-based damage accumulation model was further used to investigate the rolling shear DOL effect with model parameters treated as random variables calibrated against one set of the test data. The calibrated model predicted well comparing with the other set of the test data. This verified model provides a robust tool to quantify the DOL effect on rolling shear strength in the core layers of CLT that can be used in future studies of DOL behaviour in CLT under arbitrary loading histories.
In this study, the duration-of-load effect on the rolling shear strength of cross laminated timber (CLT), with different cross-sectional layups (five-layer and three-layer), was evaluated. A stress-based damage accumulation model is chosen to evaluate the duration-of-load strength adjustment factor of the rolling shear strength of CLT. This model incorporates the established short-term rolling shear strength of material and predicts the time to failure under arbitrary loading history. The model has been calibrated and verified based on the test data from low cycle trapezoidal fatigue tests (damage accumulation tests) in the previous study. The long-term rolling shear behaviour of CLT can then be evaluated from this verified model. As the developed damage accumulation model is a probabilistic model, it can be incorporated into a time based reliability assessment of the CLT products, considering short-term, snow, and dead load only loading cases. The reliability analysis results and factors reflecting the duration-of-load effect on the rolling shear strength of CLT are compared and discussed. The characteristic of this modeling theory lies in that the verified model is also able to predict the duration-of-load behaviour of CLT products under arbitrary loading history, such as long-term dead load case; then, these predictions of time to failure from the damage accumulation model can elucidate duration of load by the stress ratio evaluation approach. The results suggest that the duration-of-load rolling shear strength adjustment factor for CLT is more severe than the general duration-of-load adjustment factor for lumber; this difference should be considered in the introduction of CLT into the building codes for engineered wood design.
Cross laminated timber (CLT) panels were manufactured and tested to assess their time dependent behaviour. This study is intended to help guide the development of an appropriate test method and acceptance criteria to account for duration of load and creep effects in the design of structures using CLT.
Nine CLT panels of different qualities and using different wood species combinations were manufactured at a pre-commercial pilot plant out of local wood species. The CLT panels manufactured in this study were pressed at about 54% lower pressure than the minimum vertical pressure specified by the adhesive manufacturer due to a limitation of the press, so the CLT panels are viewed as a simulated defective sample, which may occur in a production environment due to material- or process-related issues.
ASTM D6815-09 provides specifications for evaluation of duration of load and creep effects of wood and wood-based products. The standard was designed to accommodate wood products that can be easily sampled, handled, and tested under load for minimum 90 days and up to 120 days. The standard requires a minimum sample size of 28 specimens. Because of its large dimensions, CLT products are not feasible for experiments requiring such large sample sizes. However, the findings of this study revealed potential for some of the acceptance criteria in ASTM D6815-09 to be applied to CLT products. The CLT billets in this study were assessed in accordance to the creep rate, fractional deflection, and creep recovery criteria in ASTM D6815-09 standard. All CLT billets tested in this study showed (1) decreasing creep rates after 90/120 days of loading, (2) fractional deflections less than 2.0 after 90-day loading, and (3) higher creep recovery than 20% after 30 days of unloading, as required by ASTM D6815-09. A single replicate billet was used per CLT configuration instead of the minimum sample size required by the standard which may have an effect on the findings.
