Light-frame wood structures are the most common type of construction for residential and low-rise buildings in North America. The 2015 edition of the National Building Code of Canada has increased the height limit for light-frame wood construction from 4 to 6 stories. With the increase in building height, it was noticed that light-frame wood structures may be governed by inter-story drift under wind and seismic loads. To reduce the inter-story drift, a hybrid system, consisting of CLT cores and light-frame structures, is proposed. The efficiency of this hybrid system is dependent on the performance of the connections between the two sub-systems. In this project, self-tapping screws (STSs) were used to connect the CLT core and light-frame wood structures on the floor level. Monotonic and reversed-cyclic tests were carried out on CLT-wood frame connections connected with STSs inserted at 45°, 90°, and mixed angles (45° and 90°). The connection performance was evaluated in terms of strength, stiffness, ultimate displacement, ductility, and energy dissipation capacity. Results show that a joint with STSs inserted at 45° had high stiffness and ductility but low energy dissipation, while connections with STSs installed at 90° had high ductility and energy dissipation but low stiffness. Connections with STSs inserted at mixed angles (45° and 90°) achieved the advantages of both configurations when the STSs were inserted at 45° or 90° individually, i.e., high stiffness, ductility, and energy dissipation. The ductility and energy dissipation were significantly improved compared with connections with STSs only inserted at 45° or 90°. This mixed angle connection can be an ideal design for connecting light-frame wood structures to a CLT core to resist wind and seismic load.
The low-cycle seismic performance of typical screws used in timber structures is analysed by performing monotonic and fully reversed cyclic bending tests on the threaded length of the shank. Tests considered partially threaded screws made of carbon steel with diameter varying between 6 and 10 mm. Results of the monotonic bending tests are used to assess the compliance of the screws with the requirement of ductility prescribed by EN 14592 and to define the average yielding moment of the shank. Cyclic bending tests are carried out afterwards by assuming three classes of low cycle seismic performance (S1 - low ductility class, S2 - medium ductility class and S3 - high ductility class). Results of the cyclic tests are used to evaluate the residual moment of the shank, which is then compared to the average yielding moment from monotonic tests. The outcomes of the testing programmes highlight that screws with a diameter equal to 6 mm can be assigned to a low-cycle seismic class S2, while screws with a diameter greater than or equal to 8 mm are capable of ensuring a higher seismic performance and can be assigned to a seismic class S3.
Recent developments in novel engineered mass timber products and connection systems have created the possibility to design and construct tall timber-based buildings. This research presents the experiments conducted on the steel-wood connection as main energy dissipating part of a novel steel–timber hybrid system labelled Finding the Forest Through the Trees (FFTT). The performance was investigated using quasi-static monotonic and reversed cyclic tests. The influence of different steel beam profiles (wide flange I-sections and hollow rectangular sections), and the embedment approaches (partial and full embedment) was investigated. The test results demonstrated that appropriate connection layouts can lead to the desired failure mechanism while avoiding excessive crushing of the mass timber panels. The research can serve as a precursos for developing design guidelines for the FFTT systems as an option for tall wood-hybrid building systems in seismic regions.
Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) structural members have recently been proposed for multi-storey timber buildings based on ongoing research at University of Canterbury, New Zealand. The members are designed with unbonded post-tensioning for recentering and energy dissipation through the ductile connections. This paper describes the experimental and numerical investigation of post-tensioned LVL walls coupled with plywood sheets, under quasistatic cyclic testing protocols. It is observed that energy is dissipated mostly through yielding of the nails, and the LVL walls return close to their initial position while remaining virtually undamaged. The same specimen has been tested under repeated cyclic loading to investigate the performance of the arrangement under more than one seismic event (a major earthquake followed by a significant aftershock). Different nail spacing and arrangements have been tested to compare their energy dissipation characteristics.
The results indicate good seismic performance, characterized by negligible damage of the structural members and very small residual deformations. The only component significantly damaged is the nailed connection between the plywood sheet and the LVL walls. Although the nails yield and there is a reduction in stiffness the system exhibits a stable performance without any major degradation throughout the loading regime. The plywood can be easily removed and replaced with new sheets after an earthquake, which are reasonably cheap and easy to install, allowing for major reduction in downtime. With these additional benefits the concept has potential for consideration as an alternative solution for multi-storey timber buildings.
In recent years, hybrid systems have grown in popularity as potential solution for mid-rise construction. There is also an increased interest in using timber for such systems. The lack of established design guidance, however, has tabled the practical implementation of timber-based hybrid structures. The aim of this thesis is to address the existing knowledge gap regarding the detailed connection design of hybrid systems through combined experimental and numerical investigations on a novel timber-steel system called “FFTT”. The FFTT system relies on wall panels of mass timber such as Cross-Laminated-Timber (CLT) for gravity and lateral load resistance and embedded steel beam sections to provide ductility under seismic loading. A vital step towards practical implementation of the FFTT system is to obtain the proof that the connections facilitate the desired ‘strong column – weak beam’ failure mechanism.
The numerical work applied the software ANSYS; a parametric study based on the results of previous tests was conducted to obtain a suitable connection configuration for improved structural performance. The experimental work, carried out at FPInnovations, consisted of quasi-static monotonic and reversed cyclic tests on two different connection configurations: fully and partially embedded ASTM wide flange sections in combination with 7 ply CLT panels. The combination of partial embedment length and full embedment depth, even when using the smallest wide flange section, did not facilitate the desired behavior. The connection performance was significantly improved when reducing the embedment depth (to avoid creating stress peaks on a weak cross layer) and increasing the embedment length (larger center to center distance between bearing plates). The used small size steel beam, however, is not practical for a real structure; therefore, further studies with larger beams and a modified geometry are recommended before the FFTT system can be applied in practice.
This paper summarises the experimental and numerical investigation conducted on the main connection of a novel steel-timber hybrid system called FFTT. The component behaviour of the hybrid system was investigated using quasi-static monotonic and reversed cyclic tests. Different steel profiles (wide flange I-sections and hollow rectangular sections) and embedment approaches for the steel profiles (partial and full embedment) were tested. The results demonstrated that when using an appropriate connection layout, the desired strong-column weak-beam failure mechanism was initiated and excessive wood crushing was avoided. A numerical model was developed that reasonably reflected the real component behaviour and can subsequently be used for numerical sensitivity studies and parameter optimization. The research presented herein serves as a precursor for providing design guidance for the FFTT system as an option for tall wood-hybrid buildings in seismic regions.
This thesis fills the existing knowledge gap between detailed design and global behaviour of hybrid systems through an experimental study on an innovative timber-steel hybrid system called “FFTT”. The FFTT system relies on wall panels of mass timber such as CLT for gravity and lateral load resistance and embedded steel sections for ductility under the earthquake loads. An important step towards the practical application of the FFTT system is obtaining the proof that the connections facilitate the desired ductile failure mode. The experimental investigation was carried out at the facility of FPInnovations, Vancouver. The testing program consisted of quasi-static monotonic and reverse cyclic tests on the timber-steel hybrid system with different configurations. The two beam profiles, wide flange I-sections and hollow rectangular sections were tested. The interaction between the steel beams and CLT panels and the effect of the embedment depth, cross-section reduction and embedment length were closely examined. The study demonstrated that when using an appropriate steel section, the desired ‘Strong Column–Weak Beam’ failure mechanism was initiated and excessive wood crushing was avoided. While wide-flange I-sections were stiffer and stronger, the hollow sections displayed better post-yield behaviour with higher energy dissipation capacity through several cycles of deformation under cyclic loads. The out-of-plane buckling at the point of yielding was the major setback of the embedment of wide-flange I-sections. This research served as a precursor for providing design guidance for the FFTT system as one option for tall wood buildings in high seismic regions.
Cross-laminated timber panel buildings are gaining a growing interest of the scientific community due to significant technical advantages, such as the material sustainability, the high fire resistance and quickness of erection. Nevertheless, it is well known that timber panels themselves are not able to dissipate a significant amount of energy during an earthquake. In fact, in this system the seismic design is carried out in order to dissipate the energy by means of inelasticity of connections. Generally, the elements devoted to withstand plastic deformations are the panel-panel and panel-foundation joints and, therefore, their ability to sustain repeated excursion in plastic range governs the building inelastic response. The paper here presented aims to propose an advanced approach for designing cross laminated timber panel buildings. In particular, it is proposed to substitute the classical hold-downs, which usually exhibit a limited dissipation capacity, with an innovative type of dissipative angle bracket. The new connections, called dissipative L-stub, apply the concept usually adopted for designing the hysteretic metallic dampers ADAS (Added Damping and Stiffness). In particular, their tapered shape allows a better spread of lasticization resulting in a high dissipation capacity. Within this framework, in order to characterize the force-displacement response under cyclic loads of L-stubs an experimental campaign is carried out. Afterwards, the effectiveness of the proposed approach is proved by analysing the non-linear response under seismic loads of a three-storey building alternatively equipped with hold-downs or L-stub. Finally, the response of classical and innovative system is compared in terms of behaviour factor.
The paper discusses experimental and numerical seismic analyses of typical connections and wall systems used in cross-laminated (X-Lam) timber buildings. An extended experimental programme on typical X-Lam connections was performed at IVALSA Trees and Timber Institute. In addition, cyclic tests were also carried out on full-scale single and coupled X-Lam wall panels with different configurations and mechanical connectors subjected to lateral force. An advanced non-linear hysteretic spring to describe accurately the cyclic behaviour of connections was implemented in ABAQUS finite element software package as an external subroutine. The FE model with the springs calibrated on single connection tests was then used to reproduce numerically the behaviour of X-Lam wall panels, and the results were compared with the outcomes of experimental full-scale tests carried out at IVALSA. The developed model is suitable for evaluating dissipated energy and seismic vulnerability of X-Lam structures.
To support the associated elementary school projects in pushing the boundaries forward for wood construction in seismic zones, this testing project aims to establish the seismic behaviour of two-storey continuous cross-laminated (CLT) timber shear walls in comparison to typical single-storey CLT shear walls and ensure they are able to provide necessary ductility in a seismic event. Working with the University of Northern British Columbia (UNBC), Fast + Epp aimed to complete a series of monotonic and reversed cyclic tests on CLT shear walls. The test setup was developed to determine the behaviour of these types of shear walls for the project specific application, as well as provide a basis to further develop this type of system for the engineering community. The multi-storey continuous CLT panel shear walls will allow for more efficient and cost-effective construction – reducing construction time, material handling, and the number of connectors required. The lab testing of these shear walls is complete, with data analysis underway. Results are intended to be published in 2021.
