Sustainability issues are driving the civil construction industry to adopt and study more environmentally friendly technologies as an alternative to traditional masonry/concrete construction. In this context, plantation wood especially stands out as a constituent of the cross-laminated timber (CLT) system, laminated wood glued in perpendicular layers forming a solid-wood structural panel. CLT panels are commonly connected by screws or nails, and several authors have investigated the behavior of these connections. Glass-fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) dowels have been used to connect wooden structures, and have presented excellent performance results; however, they have not yet been tested in CLT. Therefore, the objective of this study is to analyze the glass-fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP)-doweled connections between CLT panels. The specimens were submitted to monotonic shear loading, following the test protocol described in EN 26891-1991. Two configurations of adjacent five-layer panels were tested: flat-butt connections with 45° dowels (x, y, and z axes), and half-lap connections with 90° dowels. The results were evaluated according to the mechanical connection properties of strength, stiffness, and ductility ratio. The results showed higher stiffness for butt-end connections. In terms of strength, the half-lap connections were stronger than the butt-end connections.
The lateral resistance of dowel-type connections with CLT is related to its lay-up, species of the laminations and even the manufacture method. Treating the CLT as homogeneous material, current methods develop new equations through test results or make use of the existing equations for the embedment strength already used in design codes; thus, the lateral resistance of dowel-type connections of CLT can be calculated. This kind of approach does not take the embedment stress distribution into account, which may lead to inaccuracy in predicting the lateral resistance and yield mode of the dowel-type connections in CLT. In this study, tests of the bolted connections and the screwed connections of CLT were conducted by considering the effects of the orientation of the laminations, the thickness of the connected members, the fastener diameter and strength of the materials. The material properties including yield strength of the fasteners and embedment strength of the CLT laminations were also tested. Using analysis of the dowel-type connections of CLT by introducing the equivalent embedment stress distribution, equations for the lateral resistance of the connections based on the European Yield Model were developed. The predicted lateral resistance and yield modes were in good agreement with the test results; the correctness and the feasibility of the equations were thus validated.
In this paper the load-bearing behaviour of traditional and newly developed timber-timber connections, multi-step and free formed, are analysed within an extensive investigation focusing on joint failure. DIC measurements allowed for an assessment of the initial behaviour of the systems and their specific failure modes. By comparing the stiffness and various load levels to those of typical joint designs the improved load-bearing behaviour of the proposed joints was demonstrated while defining the range of the obtained linear-elastic phase. The results show that the onset of failure, based on the ultimate load, strongly depends on the geometry of the joint.
The present study deals with the innovation and the possibilities of improving the design solution of a frame connection for two selected types of fasteners. All specimens were made of glued laminated timber. Dowel-type mechanical fasteners, a combination of bolts and dowels, and full-threaded screws were used for the connection. The main goal of this research was to replace the typical solution (common dowel-type fasteners) with a more modern, faster, and easier solution in order to improve the load-carrying capacity, ductility, and deformation capacity of this type of frame connection. This article also aimed to provide a detailed evaluation of the mechanical properties of the used glued laminated timber and fasteners in order to comprehensively evaluate the research task. For the design solution, a frame connection created from a system of two struts and a partition was chosen as the basis of the experimental program. Dowel-type mechanical fasteners, as well as combinations of bolts and dowels, were used for the connection; however, in addition to these standardly used mechanical fasteners, full-threaded screws were used. The article describes the use of static destructive testing to determine the ductility of the connection, considering different variations in the strengthening of the individual segments of the mentioned connection means. In the first variation, the individual components of the frame were not reinforced in any way. In the second, the crossbar was reinforced with two full-threaded bolts. In the third, the webs and the crossbar were reinforced with two full-threaded bolts. In the article, these ductility values were compared with each other and the procedure was set by the currently valid standard.
The cost of connections in a mass timber structure can significantly affect the overall project cost; however, because mass timber connection design must consider not only structural design but also aesthetics, fire-rating requirements, constructability, accommodations for shrinkage and swelling, and moisture protection, finding the optimal solution can be challenging. To assist designers in this effort, WoodWorks has published an easy to use index highlighting the spectrum of available structural and architectural mass timber connections. The intent is to facilitate the selection of cost-optimal connection types while balancing other important considerations. This paper focuses on the structural connections in the index, addressing each of these considerations.
This index is a compilation of connections used in mass timber construction. Mass timber elements are solid wood pieces with inherent fire resistance due to their mass, as defined in the 2021 International Building Code (IBC). Examples of mass timber include but are not limited to cross laminated timber (CLT), dowel-laminated timber (DLT), nail-laminated timber (NLT), glue-laminated timber (GLT), mass plywood panels (MPP), and structural composite lumber (SCL) products such as laminated veneer lumber (LVL) and laminated strand lumber (LSL). Mass timber can be used as structural floors, roofs, walls, columns and/or beams. The examples in this index illustrate a broad spectrum of connections for use in mass timber construction. Depending on the unique constraints of each project, the connection choice made by the designer may be influenced by aesthetics, load carrying capacity, fire-rating requirements, quality assurance requirements, cost and/or constructability. The purpose of the index is to facilitate the designer’s selection of project appropriate connections.
This paper discusses the design principles of timber connections for ductility with focus on laterally-loaded dowel-type fasteners. Timber connections are critical components of timber structures: not only do they join members, but they also affect load capacity, stiffness, and ductility of the overall system. Moreover, due to the brittle failure behaviour of timber when loaded in tension or shear, they are often the only source of ductility and energy dissipation in the structure in case of overloading, much like a fuse in an electrical circuit.
This paper addresses current challenges in connection design for ductility, reviews selected best-practice design approaches to ensure ductility in timber connections, suggests simple performance-based design criteria to design connections for ductility, and aims to stimulate a discussion around potential solutions to implement safe design principles for ductile connections in future design codes and connection testing regimes.
Timber has been used for building construction for centuries, until the industrial revolution, when it was often replaced by steel and concrete or confined to low-rise housings. In the last thirty years however, thanks to the development of mass timber products and new global interest in sustainability, timber has begun to make a resurgence in the building industry. As building codes and public perception continues to change, the demand for taller and higher-performance timber buildings will only grow. Thus, a need exists for new construction technology appropriate for taller mass timber construction, as well as for fabrication and deconstruction practices that respect wood’s inherent sustainable nature. With this in mind, this research program aims to develop a new hybrid shear connection for mass timber buildings that allows for easy construction, deconstruction, and reuse of the structural elements.
This report includes results of Phase 1, which focused on connections consisting of partially threaded 20M and 24M steel rods bonded into pockets formed in CLT and surrounded by thick crowns of high-strength three-component epoxy-based grout. A total of 168 specimens were designed and fabricated, and push-out shear tests carried out with a displacement-controlled monotonic loading protocol. Strength and stiffness values were assessed and effective failure modes in specimens identified. These latter, along with the recorded load-deformation curves, indicate that it is possible to develop mechanics-based design models and design formulas akin to those already used for typical dowel-type fastener timber connections. Additionally, the specimens were easily fabricated in the lab and quickly fastened to the test jig by means of nuts and washers, suggested such connections have a strong potential for prefabrication, disassembly, and reuse.
This paper presents an integrated design tool for structures composed of engineered timber panels that are connected by traditional wood joints. Recent advances in computational architecture have permitted to automate the fabrication and assembly of such structures using Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machines and industrial robotic arms. While several large-scale demonstrators have been realized, most developed algorithms are closed-source or project-oriented. The lack of a general framework makes it difficult for architects, engineers and designers to effectively manipulate this innovative construction system. Therefore, this research aims at developing a holistic design tool targeting a wide range of architectural applications. Main achievements include: (1) a new data structure to deal with modular assemblies, (2) an analytical parametrization of the geometry of five timber joints, (3) a method to generate CNC toolpath while integrating fabrication constraints, and (4) a method to automatically compute robot trajectories for a given stack of timber plates.
In this study, static coefficients of friction for laminated veneer lumber on steel surfaces were determined experimentally. The focus was on the frictional behaviors at different pressure levels, which were studied in combination with other influencing parameters: fiber orientation, moisture content, and surface roughness. Coefficients of friction were obtained as 0.10–0.30 for a smooth steel surface and as high as 0.80 for a rough steel surface. Pressure influenced the measured coefficients of friction, and lower normal pressures yielded higher coefficients. The influence of fiber angle was observed to be moderate, although clearly detectable, thereby resulting in a higher coefficient of friction when sliding perpendicular rather than parallel to the grain. Moist specimens contained higher coefficients of friction than oven-dry specimens. The results provide realistic values for practical applications, particularly for use as input parameters of numerical simulations where the role of friction is often wrongfully considered.
In this study, we investigated the durability of adhesive bonds in the cross-laminated lumber of seven hardwood and two softwood species from the Great Lakes region. The 2-layered cross-laminations were glued using phenol resorcinol- and melamine-based structural adhesives. A total of 720 cross-laminated wood blocks were tested for delamination by exposing the samples to cyclic (wet-dry) conditions. Distribution of the adhesive on the bondlines was also studied to understand the effect of adhesive penetration on bond durability. The results indicated that mixed hardwood cross-laminations generally produced better bonds than single hardwood species cross-laminations. Hardwood and softwood hybrid cross-laminations were found to have better bond durability in dry-wet cycles. A high failure rate (= 50%) was found in the following single species cross-laminations: aspen, white ash, white pine, and yellow birch. Similarly, several mixed species cross-laminations resulted in a delamination rate of 50% and higher, which raises caution in their use in CLT manufacturing. In addition, the viscosity of the adhesive influences the maximum depth of penetration, which tends to affect the durability of adhesive bonds.
In this study, the bending performance of a separable cross-laminated timber (CLT)–concrete composite slab for reducing environmental impact was investigated. The slab has consisted of CLT and eco–concrete, and round-notch shape shear connectors resist the shear force between the CLT and eco-concrete. The eco–concrete was composed of a high-sulfated calcium silicate (HSCS) cement, which ensures low energy consumption in the production process. The bending stiffness and load-carrying capacities of the slab were theoretically predicted based on the shear properties of the notch connectors and validated with an experimental test. The shear properties of two types of notch shear connectors (Ø100 mm and Ø200 mm) were measured by planar shear tests. As a result, the stochastically predicted bending stiffness of the slab (with Ø100 mm shear connector) was 0.364 × 1012 N mm2, which was almost similar to test data. The load-carrying capacities of the slab were governed by the shear failure of the notch connectors, and the lower fifth percentile point estimate (5% PE) was 21.9 kN, which was 7.9% higher than the prediction (20.2 kN). In a parameter study, the effect of notch diameter for the CLT-concrete slab span was analyzed depending on the applied loads, and the maximum spans of the slab with Ø100 mm notch or Ø200 mm notch were not significantly different.
This paper presents the results of long-term experiments performed on three timber-concrete composite (TCC) beams. An innovative fabricated steel plate connection system, which consists of screws and steel plates embedded in concrete slabs, was adopted in the TCC beam specimens. The adopted shear connection can provide dry-type connection for TCC beams. Steel plates were embedded in concrete slabs while the concrete slab was constructed in factories. The timber beam and concrete slab can be assembled together using screws at the construction site. In this experimental programme, the beam specimens were subjected to constant loading for 613 days in indoor uncontrolled environments. The influence of long-term loading levels and the number of shear connections on the long-term performance of TCC beams was investigated and discussed. The mid-span deflection, timber strain, and interface relative slip at the positions of both connections and beam-ends were recorded throughout the long-term tests. It was found the long-term deflection of the TCC beam increased by approximately 60% while the long-term loads were doubled. Under the influence of the variable temperature and humidity, the TCC specimens with 8 shear connections showed slighter fluctuations compared with the TCC beam with 6 shear connections. In the 613-day observation period, the maximum deflection increment recorded was 6.56 mm for the specimen with eight shear connections and 20% loading level. A rheological model consisting of two Kelvin bodies was employed to fit the curves of creep coefficients. The final deflections predicted of all specimens at the end of 50-year service life were 2.1~2.7 times the initial deflections caused by the applied loads. All beam specimens showed relative small increments in mid-span deflection, strain and relative slip over time without any degradations, demonstrating the excellent long-term performance of TCC beams using the innovative steel plate connection system, which is also easily fabricated.
Currently, there is limited knowledge of the dynamic response of taller glue laminated (glulam) timber buildings due to ambient vibrations. Based on previous studies, glulam frame connections, as well as non-structural elements (external timber walls and internal plasterboard partitions) can have a significant impact on the global stiffness properties, and there is a lack of knowledge in modeling and investigation of their impact on the serviceability level building dynamics. In this paper, a numerical modeling approach with the use of “connection-zones” suitable for analyzing the taller glulam timber frame buildings serviceability level response is presented. The “connection-zones” are generalized beam and shell elements, whose geometry and properties depend on the structural elements that are being connected. By introducing “connection-zones”, the stiffness in the connections can be estimated as modified stiffness with respect to the connected structural elements. This approach allows for the assessment of the impact of both glulam connection stiffness and non-structural element stiffness on the dynamic building response due to service loading. The results of ambient vibration measurements of an 18-storey glulam timber frame building, currently the tallest timber building in the world, are reported and used for validation of the developed numerical model with “connection-zones”. Based on model updating, the stiffness values for glulam connections are presented and the impact of non-structural elements is assessed. The updating procedure showed that the axial stiffness of diagonal connections is the governing parameter, while the rotational stiffness of the beam connections does not have a considerable impact on the dynamic response of the glulam frame type of building. Based on modal updating, connections exhibit a semi-rigid behavior. The impact of non-structural elements on the mode shapes of the building is observed. The obtained values can serve as a practical reference for engineers in their prediction models of taller glulam timber frame buildings serviceability level response.
Friction-based dampers are a valid solution for non-invasive seismic retrofitting interventions of existing structures, particularly reinforced-concrete (RC) structures. The design of friction-based dampers is challenging: underestimating the slip force prevents the full use of the potential of the device, which attains the maximum admissible displacement earlier than expected. By contrast, overestimating the slip force may cause delayed triggering of the device when the structure has suffered extensive damage. Therefore, designing the appropriate slip force is an optimization problem. The optimal slip force guarantees the highest inter-story drift reduction. The authors formulated the optimization problem for designing a specific class of friction-based dampers, the asymmetric friction connection (AFC), devised as part of the ongoing multidisciplinary Horizon 2020 research project e-SAFE (Energy and Seismic AFfordable rEnovation solutions). The seismic retrofitting technology involves the external application of modular prefabricated cross-laminated timber (CLT) panels on existing external walls. Friction dampers connect the CLT panels to the beams of two consecutive floors. The friction depends on the mutual sliding of two metal plates, pressed against each other by preloaded bolts. This study determines the optimal slip force, which guarantees the best seismic performance of an RC structural archetype. The authors investigate the nonlinear dynamic response of a coupled mechanical system (RC frame-friction damper) under a set of strong-motion earthquakes, using non-differential hysteresis models calibrated on the experimental cyclic responses. The solution of the optimization leads to the proposal of a preliminary simplified design procedure, useful for practitioners.
Steel–timber composite (STC) systems are considered as an environmentally friendly alternative to steel–concrete composite (SCC) structures due to its advantages including high strength-to-weight ratio, lower carbon footprint, and fully dry construction. Bolts and screws are the most commonly used connectors in STC system; however, they probably make great demands on the accuracy of construction because of the predrilling in both the timber slabs and steel girder fangles. To address this issue, the STC connections with grouted stud connectors (GSC) were proposed in this paper. In addition, stud connectors can also provide outstanding stiffness and load-bearing capacity. The mechanical characteristic of the GSC connections was exploratorily investigated by finite element (FE) modeling. The designed parameters for the FE models include stud diameter, stud strength, angle of outer layer of cross-laminated timber (CLT) panel, tapered groove configurations, and thickness of CLT panel. The numerical results indicated that the shear capacity and stiffness of the GSC connections were mainly influenced by stud diameter, stud strength, angle of outer layer of CLT panel, and the angle of the tapered grooves. Moreover, the FE simulated shear capacity of the GSC connections were compared with the results predicted by the available calculation formulas in design codes and literatures. Finally, the group effect of the GSC connections with multiple rows of studs was discussed based on the numerical results and parametric analyses. An effective row number of studs was proposed to characterize the group effect of the GSC connections.
Building elements are required to provide sufficient fire resistance based on requirements set forth in the National Building Code of Canada (NBCC). Annex B of the Canadian standard for wood engineering design (CSA O86-19) provides a design methodology to calculate the structural fire-resistance of large cross-section timber elements. However, it lacks at providing design provisions for connections. The objectives of this study are to understand the fire performance of modern mass timber fasteners such as self-tapping screws, namely to evaluate their thermo-mechanical behavior and to predict their structural fire-resistance for standard fire exposure up to two hours, as would be required for tall buildings in Canada. The results present the great fire performance of using self-tapping screws under a long time exposure on connections in mass timber construction. The smaller heated area of the exposed surface has limited thermal conduction along the fastener’s shanks and maintained their temperature profiles relatively low for two hours of exposure. Based on the heat-affected area, the study presents new design principles to determine the residual length of penetration that would provide adequate load-capacity of the fastener under fire conditions. It also allows determining safe fire-resistance values for unprotected fasteners in mass timber construction exposed up to two hours of standard fire exposure.
In the seismic design of structures according to the dissipative structural behaviour, the connection ductility is crucial in order to ensure the desired level of energy dissipation of the overall structure. Therefore, in case of ductile zones composed of dowel-type fasteners arranged in series, it is important to ensure that all the fasteners can fully develop their energy dissipation capacity by plastic deformations. However, when different types of connections made of two symmetrical and serially arranged assemblies of dowel-type fasteners are tested, it often appears that only few fasteners fully work in the plastic region while most of the remaining ones exhibit very low yielding.
Looking at the causes of this dysfunction, a possible explanation is due to the fact that the rules for the seismic design of dissipative zones in timber structures given in international codes and used in common practice often make reference only to the steel quality of the dowel-type fasteners specifying a minimum tensile strength or sometime, like is the case of the current version of Eurocode 8, only to maximum values of the dowel-type fastener diameter and of the thickness of the connected timber or wood-based members. Also, the research conducted so far about the ductile behaviour of serially arranged connections was not focused on the post-elastic properties of steel. However, for the seismic design of ductile zones of other materials, such as for example is the case of reinforced concrete walls, post-elastic characteristics of steel are required for the reinforcing bars, in order to achieve the desired dissipative behaviour.
Inspired by this fact, timber connections composed of serially arranged dowels made of steel grades with different hardening ratio and elongation at maximum tensile stress were fabricated and tested. The purpose of this work is to understand if the use of steel with significant post-elastic properties may help to solve the problem of limited yielding in serially arranged dowel-type connections.
The tested specimens were composed of two symmetrical timber members made of Glulam and LVL connected to two 6 mm thick slotted-in steel plates by means of 9 steel dowels with a diameter of 6.0 mm, which were subjected to monotonic and cyclic tests carried out by implementing dowels made of steel with favourable post-elastic properties.
The results showed that the simultaneous yielding of two serially arranged dowelled assemblies is possible, although not fully. Moreover, assuming as reference the steel grade with the lowest post-elastic properties, the connection ductility and strength measured through monotonic and cyclic tests increased by about 30% for the steel grades with the highest hardening ratio and elongation at maximum tensile stress, whereas the displacement at maximum strength was about five times higher.
In addition, it was found that confinement of the timber members and shaping of holes were crucial in order to avoid undesired and premature brittle failures and to increase the connection strength and ductility.
The results obtained may be useful in order to bring a reassessment of the code requirements regarding the steel properties of ductile connections as well as of certain principles of dimensioning and detailing.
An experimental and analytical study on rotational behaviour of glulam beam-column moment connections with self-drilling dowels (SDD) was conducted. Connection properties including strength, stiffness, ductility and energy dissipation were experimentally evaluated by testing seven full-scale connection specimens with and without self-tapping screw (STS) reinforcement along timber perpendicular to grain. All the connections showed high initial stiffness and high moment capacity when compared with the test results of bolted connections reported in literature. The unreinforced connections had relatively low ductility due to timber splitting despite the increased fastener edge distance. The STS reinforcement effectively reduced timber splitting tendency and encouraged the yielding of more SDD, leading to slightly increased moment capacity, but significantly improved ductility. A modified analytical model (MAM) was then proposed to predict strength and rotation of the SDD moment connections based on force and moment equilibrium of the glulam members. Improved prediction accuracy was achieved for the SDD moment connections when compared with the past analytical methods.
The use of cross-laminated timber (CLT) in multi-story buildings is increasing due to the potential of wood to reduce green house gas emissions and the high load-bearing capacity of CLT. Compression perpendicular to the grain (CPG) in CLT is an important design aspect, especially in multi-storied platform-type CLT buildings, where CPG stress develops in CLT floors due to loads from the roof or from upper floors. Here, CPG of CLT wall-to-floor connections are studied by means of finite element modeling with elasto-plastic material behavior based on a previously validated Quadratic multi-surface (QMS) failure criterion. Model predictions were first compared with experiments on CLT connections, before the model was used in a parameter study, to investigate the influence of wall and floor thicknesses, the annual ring pattern of the boards and the number of layers in the CLT elements. The finite element model agreed well with experimental findings. Connection stiffness was overestimated, while the strength was only slightly underestimated. The parameter study revealed that the wall thickness effect on the stiffness and strength of the connection was strongest for the practically most relevant wall thicknesses between 80 and about 160 mm. It also showed that an increasing floor thickness leads to higher stiffness and strength, due to the load dispersion effect. The increase was found to be stronger for smaller wall thicknesses. The influence of the annual ring orientation, or the pith location, was assessed as well and showed that boards cut closer to the pith yielded lower stiffness and strength. The findings of the parameter study were fitted with regression equations. Finally, a dimensionless ratio of the wall-to-floor thickness was used for deriving regression equations for stiffness and strength, as well as for load and stiffness increase factors, which could be used for the engineering design of CLT connections.
