The current research investigated the delamination process of adhesively bonded hardwood (European beech) elements subject to changing climatic conditions. For the study of the long-term fracture mechanical behavior of gluedlaminated components under varying moisture content, the role of moisture development, time- and moisture-dependent responses are absolutely crucial. For this purpose, a 3D orthotropic hygro-elastic, plastic, visco-elastic, mechano-sorptive wood constitutive model with moisture-dependent material constants was presented in this work. Such a comprehensive material model is capable to capture the true historydependent stress states and deformations which are essential to achieve reliable design of timber structures. Besides the solid wood substrates, the adhesive material also influences the interface performance considerably. Hence, to gain further insight into the stresses and deformations generated in the bond-line, a general hygro-elastic, plastic, visco-elastic creep material model for adhesive was introduced as well. The associated numerical algorithms developed on the basis of additive decomposition of the total strain were formulated and implemented within the Abaqus Finite Element (FE) package. Functionality and performance of the proposed approach were evaluated by performing multiple verification simulations of wood components, under different combinations of mechanical loading and moisture variation. Moreover, the generality and efficiency of the presented approach was further demonstrated by conducting an application example of a hybrid wood element.
Wooden constructions are on the rise again – encouraged by a strong trend towards sustainable and resource efficient buildings. Load-bearing timber-glass composite elements – a novel concept to use the in-plane loadbearing potential of glass – could contribute to a more efficient use of materials in façades. The current study relates to the adhesive bond between the glass pane and the timber substructure. The applicability of structural sealants such as silicones is limited due to their distinct flexibility which leads to large deformations of the joint. Further potential arises from the use of adhesives of medium and high stiffness. Their general performance as well as their durability have not yet been evaluated with respect to the proposed use in building constructions. This paper draws attention to the ageing stability of two promising adhesives. Small-scale adhesively bonded specimens which are composed of a wooden and a glass piece are exposed to different ageing scenarios which relate to the impacts typically encountered in façades. Based on the results it can be concluded that the considered high-modules adhesives enable an increase of characteristic failure loads and a reduction of joint deformation, but also reveal shortcomings regarding their ageing stability.
Glued laminated timber (glulam) is manufactured by gluing and stacking timber lamellas, which are sawn and finger-jointed parallel to the wood grain direction. This results in a sustainable and competitive construction material in terms of dimensional versatility and load-carrying capacity. With the proliferation of glued timber constructions, there is an increasing concern about safety problems related to adhesive bonding. Delaminations are caused by manufacturing errors and in service climate variations simultaneously combined with long-sustained loads (snow, wind and gravel filling on flat roofs). Several recent building collapses were related to bonding failure, which should be prevented in the future with a timely defect detection.
The goal of the thesis was the development of novel non-destructive testing methodologies capable of imaging the position and geometry of delaminations within the bonding planes of glulam. An ACU system prototype capable of detecting an ultrasound beam transmitted through up to 500mm thick glulam was developed, consisting of off-the-shelf ACU transducers, high-power pulsed excitation electronics and a low-noise amplification chain. A five-axes computerized scanning system and a low-cost micro-electromechanic sensors (MEMS) linear array design allowed ultrasound imaging with fix or independent transmitter and receiver transducer units. The bonding assessment was fundamentally based on the evaluation of the attenuation of the ultrasound beam, which significantly increases when transmitted through a material discontinuity (delamination) with respect to a defect-free glue line.
This Report presents the results from experimental studies of airborne sound transmission, together with an explanation of calculation procedures to predict the apparent airborne sound transmission between adjacent spaces in a building whose construction is based on cross-laminated timber (CLT) panels.
There are several types of CLT constructions which are commercially available in Canada, but this study only focused on CLT panels that have adhesive between the faces of the timber elements in adjacent layers, but no adhesive bonding the adjacent timber elements within a given layer. There were noticeable gaps (up to 3 mm wide) between some of the timber elements comprising each layer of the CLT assembly. These CLT panels could be called "Face-Laminated CLT PAnels" but are simply referred to as CLT panels in this Report.
Another form of CLT panels has adhesive between the faces of the timber elements in adjacent layers as well as adhesive to bond the adjacent timber elements within a given layer. These are referred to as "Fully-Bonded CLT Panels" in this Report.
This paper examines a new and very promising concept for prefabricated timber-concrete-composite floors (TCC-floors), were the heavy normal weight concrete is replaced by a lightweight concrete (LC) with a density of about 17 kN/m³. Investigations into the connections between lightweight concrete and timber indicate that the performances of the existing connection types are unsatisfactory if combined with lightweight concrete. Therefore, a new connection method is proposed, adhesively bonding the lightweight concrete with the timber by means of a filled epoxy resin. Different ways of manufacturing the bonded timber-lightweight concrete-composite beams (TLCC-beams) are investigated in a research project at the Technische Universität Berlin, to examine the differences in their structural performances. Most promising are the test results for TLLC-beams, fabricated with a wet-in-wet bonding method.
The feasibility of manufacturing cross-laminated timber (CLT) from southern yellow pine (United States grown) treated with micronized copper azole type C (MCA-C) preservative was evaluated. Lumber (2x6 visually graded no. 2 boards) was treated to two retention levels (1.0 and 2.4 kg/m3 ), planed to a thickness of 35 mm, and assembled along with an untreated control group using three adhesive systems following product specifications: melamine formaldehyde (MF), resorcinol formaldehyde (RF), and one-component polyurethane (PUR). Block shear and delamination tests were conducted to examine the bonding performance in accordance with ASTM D905 and ASTM D2559 Standards, respectively. One-way analysis of variance and Kruskal-Wallis H test were conducted to evaluate the effects of preservative retention and adhesive type on block shear strength (BSS) and wood failure percentage (WFP). Regardless of adhesive type, the 1.0 kg/m3 retention treatment significantly lowered BSS compared to the untreated control. CLT composed of the laminations treated at 2.4 kg/m3 maintained BSS when PUR and RF were used but not MF. The average WFP of each CLT configuration ranged from 89% to 99%. The untreated CLT specimens did not experience any delamination under accelerated weathering cycles. The delamination rates of the treated specimens assembled using MF and RF increased with the preservative retention level, while PUR provided delamination rates less than 1% to the laminations treated at both levels. These combined data suggest that, under the conditions tested, PUR provided overall better bonding performance than MF and RF for MCA-C treated wood.
The study reports on block shear investigations with bondlines of face-glued laminations and matched solid wood specimens from hardwood glulam (GLT) beams produced industrially from eight technically and stand volume-wise important species. The European hardwoods comprised oak, beech, sweet chestnut and ash and the tropical species were teak, keruing, melangangai and light red meranti. The adhesives were phenol-resorcinol and melamine-urea. When combining all species in one sample, a rather strong linear relationship of bond and wood shear strength was observed. The ratio of bond vs. wood shear strength was for all species on the mean value level = 0.9, and likewise (with one exception) for the respective strengths’ 5%-quantiles. Consistent with literature, the test results showed no significant correlations between bond shear strength and density, wood shear strength and wood failure percentage of individual species, respectively. The investigations render the methodological basics of some international standards on bond quality verification as being inappropriate. New, empirically validated hardwood GLT bond requirements are proposed for discussion and implementation at the CEN and ISO levels. The strength ratio specifications reflect respective ANSI provisions, yet the reference quantity wood shear strength is now determined in an unbiased manner from matched GLT specimens. The wood failure verification proposal is based on the 10%-quantile and mean level for initial type testing and factory production control. The requirements further account for the pronounced difference observed in scatter of wood failure between European and tropical species.
Structural changes like deformations and crack growth in polymers, filled with electrically conductive particles can be measured by resistography. Accordingly, the polymeric adhesive layers in glued-laminated timber should be usable for characterization of the wooden structures and the integrity of the bondline. The described research of the last years – partly described on different conferences in 2012 to 2016, refined and extended - addresses the question, if electrically conductive adhesives can be used to characterize structural changes of wooden structures. Electrical conductive adhesives have been modified with carbon based fillers to use the bondline as a sensor in layered wood structures. Laboratory scaled samples were prepared and tested in different load and climate conditions to proof the usability of the conductive adhesive for measurement purposes. The results are showing a correlation between displacement and DC resistivity. Further, the signals also allow a separation among the different kinds of stress states. By varying the contact points of the resistivity measurement it was also possible to monitor the wood moisture.
In the presented paper, results of theoretical and experimental investigation of timber-concrete composite members with adhesive connection are described. For the timber part of composite beams Cross Laminated Timber and for concrete part lightweight concrete was used. For the composite connection special adhesive to bounding wet concrete and timber was applied. For experimental investigation two types of composite beams with different dimensions was used. Due to the shrinkage of lightweight concrete small precamber of timber beams during concrete hardening was applied. CLT panels combined with concrete slab dispose of higher load-carrying capacity, lower deformation and vibration. In case of theoretical analysis, simplified analytical -method was used to consider shear flexibility of the CLT cross layer. Results of presented experimental and theoretical analysis provide wider scope for further research and application of adhesively bonded CLT-concrete composite members.
The Cradle-to-Cradle Certification at Platinum level, awarded to products which perfectly embody the principles of Cradle-to-Cradle design, is perhaps one of the most esteemed standards of excellence in sustainability circles. Currently, there is no Platinum-level product which can deliver the classic postand-beam structural system. This literature review investigates the possibility of a timber beam product filling in that gap, and the potential design specifications necessary to do it. Findings suggest that the resin component of current glulam beams harm the Cradle-to-Cradle assessment rating, therefore posing a challenge to find eco-friendly alternative. Potential candidates such as lignin and casein resin are studied, along with the novel technology of welded dowel-laminated timber.
){kind=link}
